Showing papers on "Air quality index published in 1978"

Some evidence on the distribution of air quality. [Correlations with income]

Abstract: This paper addresses the question: is exposure to air pollution in the U.S. related systematically to economic and social characteristics of the population. The evidence examined (based on micro data) indicates that air pollution in urban areas appears to be regressively distributed; and that recent air-quality changes have followed a progressive pattern. Although these findings must be treated with caution, they are in accord with some evidence reported elsewhere. Section I briefly reviews the literature dealing with the distribution of air quality and associated benefits. Section II describes new evidence on current air-quality distribution, while Section III presents some direct measures of the incidence of distribution. In Section IV some direct tests of the distribution of recent air-quality change are presented. Problems of interpretation are examined in Section V. It is concluded that both the inter- and intra-city distributions examined indicate that air-pollution exposure is inversely related to income and income-related variables. 61 references, 47 footnotes.

Criteria for the evaluation of methods for the collection of organic pollutants in air using solid sorbents

Abstract: A small tube containing a solid sorbent is convenient to use for collecting and concentrating trace organics in ambient air and worker breathing zones. Many techniques for air sampling with solid sorbents, especially for the long term eight hour sample, are relatively new. It is necessary to have criteria to judge methods utilizing these techniques and to establish guidelines which are accurate and practical. Parameters which affect collection and recovery and information necessary to define, develop and evaluate a sampling method are discussed. Progressive steps for the development and validation of air sampling methods are recommended.

The Livermore Regional Air Quality Model: I. Concept and Development

Abstract: By using the Eulerian form of the mass conservation equation integrated vertically from the surface to the base of the inversion, two regional air quality models (LIRAQ-1 and LIRAQ-2) have been developed for use in the San Francisco Bay Area. The models consider the complex topography, changing meteorology and detailed source emission patterns in generating surface and vertical average pollutant concentrations with grid resolutions of 1, 2 or 5 km. The focus of LIRAQ-1 is the treatment of transport and dispersion of relatively nonreactive species, accomplished through use of a sophisticated transport prescription. The LIRAQ-2 model, employing a simpler transport scheme, treats photochemically active pollutants and incorporates a photochemical reaction set involving 19 species.

Air Monitoring milestones, RAP's field measurements are in

Abstract: A discussion covers the objectives of the RAPS study conducted by the EPA in St. Louis, e.g., to develop, evaluate, and validate air quality simulation models on a regional scale covering urban and rural stationary and mobile sources. The design of the RAPS was discussed including a field measurement program which has been completed, data management, and model evaluation and testing. The Regional Air Monitoring System of the RAPS which consisted of 25 remotely operated, automated stations controlled and polled via telemetry by a central data-acquisition system, data-quality assurance, and the Upper Air Sounding Network were also discussed. Expeditionary investigations, e.g., pollutant transport and dispersion studies, evaluation of instruments, use of helicopters, the exchange of data between RAPS and related studies in the St. Louis area, e.g., the Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment, emission inventories which are now available for the St. Louis area, e.g., for hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds were reported. Data management, and model evaluation and development were also covered. Map, photographs, and table are included.

Methods for sulfate air quality management with applications to Los Angeles

Abstract: Particulate sulfate air pollutants contribute to visibility deterioration and are of current public health concern. This study develops the technical understanding needed for sulfate air quality control strategy design. Methods which link sulfate air quality and air quality impacts on visibility to the cost of controlling sulfur oxides air pollutant emissions are presented. These techniques are tested by application to the Los Angeles Basin over the years 1972 through 1974. An air quality simulation model is developed which directly calculates long-term average sulfate concentrations under unsteady meteorological conditions. Pollutant concentrations are estimated from Lagrangian marked-particle statistics based on the time sequence of historical measured wind speed, wind direction and inversion base height motion. First order chemical reactions and ground level pollutant dry deposition are incorporated within a computational scheme which conserves pollutant mass. Techniques are demonstrated for performing both mass balance and energy balance calculations on flows of energy resources containing sulfur throughout the economy of an air quality control region. The energy and sulfur balance approach is used to check the consistency of a spatially and temporally resolved air quality modeling emission inventory for the South Coast Air Basin. Next the air quality model is validated against sulfur oxides emissions and sulfate air quality patterns observed in the Los Angeles Basin over each month of the years 1972 through 1974. A seasonal variation in the rate of SO2 oxidation to form sulfates is inferred. Overall average SO2 oxidation rates of about 6% per hour prevail during late spring, summer and early fall, while mean SO2 oxidation rates of between 0.5% per hour and 3% per hour prevail from October through February of our test years. From the model results, it is concluded that three to five major SO2 source classes plus background sulfates must be considered simultaneously at most monitoring sites in order to come close to explaining observed sulfate levels. The implication is that a mixed strategy aimed simultaneously at a number of specified source types will be needed if substantial sulfate air quality improvements are to be achieved within this particular airshed. Techniques are developed for analysis of the long-run impact of pollutant concentrations on visibility. Existing statistical models for light scattering by aerosols which use particle chemical composition as a key to particle size and solubility are modified so that the relative humidity dependence of light-scattering by hygroscopic aerosols could be represented in a more physically realistic manner. Coefficients are fitted to the model based on ten years of air pollution control agency routine air monitoring data taken at downtown Los Angeles. Sulfates are found to be the most effective light scatterers in the Los Angeles atmosphere. It is estimated that the visibility impact of reducing sulfates to a half or to a quarter of their measured historic values on each past day of record would be manifested most clearly in a reduction in the number of days per year of less than three-mile visibility. The number of days of average visibility less than ten miles would be little affected. Two retrospective examples are worked to show how the results of the air quality simulation models may be used to define a variety of sulfate air quality control strategy options. It is suggested that a package of technological emissions control measures and institutional changes (including natural gas price deregulation) may provide greater improvements in both sulfate air quality and visibility at less cost than can be obtained from a purely technological solution to the Los Angeles sulfate problem.

The effect of chinook weather on urban heat islands and air pollution

Abstract: Urban heat island intensity is stronger and air quality poorer under a chinook than under nonchinook weather. These discrepancies are explained in part by the observed differences in wind pattern, atmospheric stability, and mixing depth associated with these weather conditions. Heat island intensity appears to be reinforced by poor air quality in chinook weather.

The Air Pollution and Property Value Debate: Some Empirical Evidence

Abstract: In recent issues of this REVIEW, Myrick Freeman and Kenneth Small have helped to clarify some confusion which grew out of a study of air pollution and property values by Ridker and Henning (1967). Ridker and Henning (hereafter referred to as R-H) performed a multiple regression of property values on air pollution, housing characteristics, accessibility, and neighborhood characteristics using cross-section data for the St. Louis metropolitan area. As Freeman (1974a) and Small (1975) point out, the early debate on the R-H study was largely sidetracked with the issue of whether one can predict the aggregate change in property values resulting from an improvement in urban air quality. A more appropriate focus for policy purposes is the question of whether property value data can be used to estimate households' willingness to pay for cleaner air. The R-H study calculated willingness to pay by first multiplying the air pollution coefficient obtained in their linear regression by the change in air pollution estimated for each household, and then summing over all St. Louis households. The air pollution coefficient was thus inteipreted as the average willingness to pay for air quality improvements for all St. Louis households. Freeman (1971) had correctly pointed out in an earlier note that the R-H procedure of calculating willingness to pay is inappropriate because a hedonic housing regression cannot in itself isolate demand and supply elements; and Freeman was not very sanguine about the possibilities of doing so. Without taking a position on whether the true willingness to pay for clean air can be determined empirically, both Freeman and Small put the earlier empirical work into perspective by showing that the pollution coefficient in the housing value regression does provide a correct measure of the 'mnarginal valuation placed by individual consumers on uniform changes in pollution levels" (Small, 1975, p. 105). As a theoretical point, this result is reassuring, since it suggests that benefit estimates obtained from studies like that of Ridker and Henning may be reasonable if the air quality improvement is small. Unfortunately, however, the air quality improvements generated by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 and 1977 are distinctly nonmarginal (pollution reductions are often predicted to be 50% or more). No empirical evidence has been available thus far to assess the magnitude of the bias associated with using marginal valuations to estimate the benefits from these nonmarginal pollution reductions.' This note attempts to fill this gap. Several authors have argued as a matter of principle that the willingness to pay for nonmarginal air quality improvements can be obtained from property value data if the proper conceptual procedure is used.2 Using the approach suggested by these papers and an empirical focus suggested by Rosen (1974), we have elsewhere provided estimates of households' willingness to pay for clean air as well as details concerning the nature of the data and possible specification biases (Harrison and Rubinfeld, 1978). In this paper we confine our discussion to the magnitude of the bias that results from using the air pollution coefficient in the hedonic housing price equation directly to estimate the willingness to pay of urban households for a nonmnarginal air quality improvement. Section II summarizes the model we use to estimate the demand for nonmarginal changes in air quality. In section III we distinguish three potential sources of bias in the R-H procedure, and assess the quantitative importance of each with data for the Boston Metropolitan area.

Health effects associated with diesel exhaust emissions, literature review and evaluation

Abstract: Engineering tests have shown a significant improvement in fuel economy in light duty vehicles equipped with diesel engines versus those equipped with gasoline engines. Automobile manufacturers are considering a major program for conversion to diesel engines in the automobile fleet by 1985. Available studies show rather large differences in emissions from diesel engine exhausts as opposed to gasoline engine exhaust. Conversion of a major portion of the automobile fleet to diesel engines may significantly change the ambient concentrations of both regulated and unregulated pollutants, and hence the potential human exposure pattern. Such changes may impact upon public health, and consequently require changes in air quality standards, and/or new emissions or air quality standards. An assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the health effects from diesel exhaust emissions, and the identification of major research needs, are important factors which must be considered by the EPA under the 1977 Amendments to the Clean Air Act. In order to accomplish this objective, the following information on diesel emissions has been reviewed in this document: physical and chemical characteristics; biological effects in animals and man; epidemiologic studies; knowledge gaps; and research needs.

The Livermore Regional Air Quality Model: II. Verification and Sample Application in the San Francisco Bay Area

Abstract: Topographic, meteorological, source emission and atmospheric pollutant concentration data have been assembled for use in verifying the LIRAQ-1 and LIRAQ-2 regional air quality models in the San Francisco Bay Area. These data, collected primarily during the high-pollution period of 26–27 July 1973, indicate that the temporal and spatial phasing for concentrations of carbon monoxide, ozone and nitrogen oxides can be adequately represented by the models. Sensitivity studies indicate that initial and horizontal boundary conditions as well as grid size and subgrid-scale effects, while very significant in predicting air quality on the local scale, are less important in dealing with regional concentrations of pollutants than are emissions, meteorological conditions and vertical boundary conditions.

Clean air amendments of 1977

Abstract: The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments, intended to clarify the 1970 Clean Air Act and to address new problems, show a trend toward emphasizing state and local control, the use of economic strategies, and more-efficient pollution control. The timetable for automobile emission standards was extended for industry and waiver provisions for the carbon monoxide standard were granted to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Implementation remains a state responsibility with plans approved by the EPA. States must include plans to prevent ambient air quality from deteriorating down to the standard. The regulatory framework is seen to be more flexible and decentralized, with provisions for local planning and approval of new pollution sources and for Federal funds to be withheld when projects are inconsistent with stategies to implement air quality standards. EPA responsibilities were broadened to cover visibility, stack heights, and ozone layer protection. The shift toward an economic approach includes noncompliance penalties and emission offset policy.

Use of meteorological data in air quality trend analysis

Abstract: Meteorological influences upon air quality trend analyses can complicate the evaluation of air pollution control efforts. It is important to isolate the meteorological effects in order to determine air quality trends as a function of emissions. This report surveys existing methods for meteorologically adjusting air quality trends, including a review of known relationships between specific air pollutants and various meteorological parameters, and presents a recommended methodology to normalize air quality trends with respect to 'typical' year meteorology. Procedures involve the determination of mutually exclusive meteorological classes and the treatment of air quality variables stratified according to the established meteorological classes. A hypothetical example is included to illustrate both the mathematical processes and the interpretation of the methodological results.

Air Quality Objectives

Abstract: Although there are no legally enforceable standards for air quality in the UK, informal ‘air quality objectives’ are sometimes used. These include a set of objectives recommended by an Expert Committee of the World Health Organisation and the ‘acceptable’ ground level concentrations of pollutants that chimney heights are calculated to produce.

A Procedure for Air Monitoring Instrumentation Location

Abstract: The attainment and enforcement of air quality standards is a complicated process. A crucial element in this process is the measurement of ambient air quality. The selection of locations for a limited number of monitors and their sampling frequencies is an important problem in the design of a regional air quality measurement system. This paper presents a mathematical model and procedure for solving the problem and demonstrates the conflicting nature of the principal guidelines specified by EPA. The method uses atmospheric simulation to assess the likelihood of standards violations, and linear programming to select the monitor locations and sampling frequencies. Since atmospheric simulation is required by EPA, the method appears to be accessible to virtually all local agencies. The use of linear programming permits extensive sensitivity analysis, which is illustrated in a case study. In particular, the trade-offs between conflicting EPA guidelines can be explicitly analyzed. The computational burden is prim...

Emerging market in air-pollution rights

Abstract: A system of marketable air-emission rights--that is, rights to emit pollutants into the air--could provide an astonishing array of social benefits. First and of key importance, such a market would make it possible both to hold air emissions to a desired level and to allocate them to those who produced the greatest economic benefits to society. Firms desiring to expand production could do so if the value of their product enabled them to purchase the right to use scarce air quality. The possibility of trading the rights would allow for growth and change. Second, having to pay for air emission rights would make the value of air quality obvious to both buyers and sellers, thus leading to conservation and an efficient use of pollution control devices. In December, 1976, the EPA outlined the conditions for an extremely limited market in emission rights for nonattainment areas (41 Federal Register 55525). A current transaction (Sohio case) in the market is reviewed to illustrate the possibilities that EPA's new policy offers to firms wishing to expand in nonattainment regions. (MCW)

Land use and land cover information and air-quality planning

Abstract: __________________________________________ Bl Introduction _________________________________________ 1 Acknowledgments _____________________________________ 2 Land use and land cover and air-quality planning __________________ 2 Air-quality control strategies ___________________________ 2 Strategy evaluation by Federal and State agencies ________-__——— 2 Land use and land cover information needed for comprehensive air-quality planning _________________________________ 3 Land use and land cover information developed in the CARETS project ______ 3 Land use and land cover classification scheme formulated by the U.S. Geological Survey ____________________________——— 5 Measurement detail and accuracy ____________________—— 6 Polygon recording system _______________________—— 6 User products __________________________________ 6 Land use and land cover information for air-quality planning in the NorfolkPortsmouth standard metropolitan statistical area ______—————— 6 Land use and land cover information used for the initial Norfolk area con­ trol strategy and implementation plan _____————————————— 9 Available land use and land cover information ________—_——— 9 Estimating the initial emission inventory _______—————————— 9 Evaluating and refining strategies for the Norfolk area _—————————— 9 Selection of initial control strategy __________————————— 9 Evaluating the initial control strategy __________-_--_—————— 11 Land use and land cover and emission estimates ______———————— 13 Area sources _______________________-_—————————— 13 Point sources ______________________________—————— 13 Seasonality _________________________-___—————— 14 Future emission patterns ______________—_—————————— 14 Land use and land cover and Norfolk area emissions patterns _——————— 14 Determining spatial distribution patterns of air quality _—————————— 24 Estimating pollutant diffusion patterns ______———————— 24 Model used to estimate Norfolk area air quality ———————————— 26 Norfolk area airflow characteristics _______—————————————— 28 Selection of grid patterns for estimating pollutant concentrations ——— 31 Norfolk land use and land cover and estimated air-pollutant concen­ tration patterns __________-_____—————————————— 31 Sulfur dioxide concentrations ______—_—————————————— 34 Suspended particulate concentrations ___———————————— 41 Conclusions _________________—_———————————————————— 41 References ________________-__-_—_————————————————— 42

The Use of Meteorological Modeling and Biological Indicators to Identify Sources of Phytotoxic Pollutants

Abstract: Meteorological dispersion modeling and pine trees used as "integrating monitors" were used to consider the probable source of a phytotoxic pollutant producing symptoms previously un-reported in the literature. Two sources, a chemical plant (A) and a fabric finishing plant (B) north of Raleigh, NC, were considered using the Air Quality Display Model (AQDM). Using the ability of this model to accommodate extra receptors corresponding to "monitoring" sites, we found good correlation between observed injury and predicted relative concentrations due to assumed emissions from source A. The poor agreement between predicted and observed injury if source B alone were modeled (or both sources together) suggested that source A alone emitted the causal agent.

Analysis for residuals-environmental quality management

Abstract: The use of the residuals-environmental quality management (REQM) approach to generate costs and consequences of alternative strategies for improving ambient environmental quality (AEQ) was investigated. Application of REQM, developed in the US, to another socio-economic-political system is described. The study was performed in Ljubljana, Yugoslavia. The results are discussed. (DC)