Showing papers on "Circular migration published in 2015"

Migration and Development

Abstract: This article reviews the thinking on migration and development from two points of view. First, it looks at more conceptual ideas in the academic literature on long-term and macrolevel approaches to the topic. Second, it examines approaches to the management of migration in the current policy debate on migration and development. The focus is primarily on international migration, although reference is made to internal migration where appropriate and opposing views and critical approaches are highlighted. The article conceptualizes migration as an integral part of development that changes systematically as development, however defined, evolves.

Rhythmic Island: Latvian Migrants in Guernsey and their Enfolded Patterns of Space‐Time Mobility

Abstract: Rather than a marginal activity, visiting friends and relatives (VFR) is a fundamental part of the migrant experience. We illustrate this assertion by an in-depth study of Latvian labour migration to Guernsey. Since the 1990s, low incomes and high unemployment in post-Soviet Latvia combine with niche-specific labour demands in Guernsey to create migratory flows of mainly female workers. The small-scale nature of this circular migration system allows a deeper theorisation of the many linkages between migration and VFR. In particular we deploy time-geography and rhythmanalysis to explore the various ways that migration and VFR are enfolded within each other, within the life-courses of the protagonists, and within the capitalist rhythms of temporary labour migration. Empirical evidence comes from interviews with 90 Latvian migrants in Guernsey and with 16 employers. VFR mobilities are space-time events of co-presence which can take place either in Latvia or in Guernsey. Both directions of visits can involve touristic functions, and VFR to Guernsey can also carry the potential to stimulate further migration. Further research could pay more attention to gender aspects and to prospects for permanent return migration to Latvia.

Social Networks and Local Incorporation—Grounding High-skilled Migrants in Two German Cities

Abstract: The global connection of production and labour markets intensifies circular migration patterns and mobile lifestyles. Highly qualified migrants play an increasingly prominent role as illustrated by policy initiatives to recruit skilled professionals. So far there is little evidence about the relationship between mobile groups and urban development processes. It remains unclear to what extent mobile lifestyles and the maintenance of transnational ties affect local incorporation patterns. Our paper has two main objectives. First, it examines the role of specific settings for ‘grounding’ high-skilled migrants. We particularly focus on social networks such as work environments, migrant communities and web-based social networks. Second, it discusses if the city context influences the modes of incorporation. The paper draws on qualitative interviews with high-skilled migrants from non-European countries in two large German cities with divergent development trajectories. Our findings show that local social netwo...

An Immigrant's Tale: The Mexican American Southwest 1850 to 1950

Abstract: Recent scholarship on Mexican Americans in the United States, relying largely on qualitative evidence, sees racism and exploitation as the major explanatory factors in their history. Using representative samples of persons of Mexican origin, we argue that immigration is fundamental to their historical experience. A small, beleaguered community in 1850, the Mexican-origin population grew during the late nineteenth century due to greater security under US jurisdiction. However, immigration between 1900 and 1930 created a Southwest broadly identified with persons of Mexican origin. Economic development in Mexico, restriction of European immigration to the United States, and extreme cross-border wage differentials prompted extensive emigration. Despite low human capital, circular migration, and discrimination, immigrant Mexicans earned substantially higher wages than workers in Mexico or native-born Hispanics in the United States. They followed typical immigrant paths toward urban areas with high wages. Prior to 1930, their marked tendency to repatriate was not “constructed” or compelled by the state or employers, but fit a conventional immigrant strategy. During the Depression, many persons of Mexican origin migrated to Mexico; some were deported or coerced, but others followed this well-established repatriation strategy. The remaining Mexican-origin population, increasingly native born, enjoyed extraordinary socioeconomic gains in the 1940s; upward mobility, their family forms, and rising political activity resembled those of previous immigrant-origin communities. In the same decade, however, the Bracero Program prompted mass illegal immigration and mass deportation, a pattern replicated throughout the late twentieth century. These conditions repeatedly replenished ethnicity and reignited nativism, presenting a challenge not faced by any other immigrant group in US history.

Brief report: Mobility and circular migration in Lesotho: implications for transmission, treatment, and control of a severe HIV epidemic.

Abstract: We analyzed georeferenced data on mobility and HIV infection from the 2009 Demographic and Health Survey of Lesotho. We found ∼50% of the population traveled in the preceding year. By constructing gender-specific mobility maps, we discovered that travel is highest in the urban areas bordering South Africa and in the mountainous interior of the country. For both genders, increased mobility was associated with increased levels of "recent" sexual behavior. Notably, mobility was only associated with an increased risk of HIV infection for men who traveled frequently. We discuss the implications of our results for designing effective treatment programs and HIV interventions.

Acquisition of Nationality as Migration Policy

Abstract: Spain is coming to the end of its first wave of mass international migration, with Latin Americans being clearly predominant during this unprecedented period of immigration. During the 2000 s, various incentives and strategies including bilateral labor agreements between Spain and Latin American countries were issued, and represented the government’s strategy to assist and encourage immigration from Latin America, mostly due to the well-established historical ties from Spain’s past as a colonial power in the region as well as its tradition as a country of emigration, particularly to Latin American countries. The range of comprehensive government policies on migration and the existence of a legal framework based on shared cultural traits (such as language and traditions), together with the preferential treatment received under Spanish nationality law (e.g. a reduced 2-year residence requirement to apply for naturalization), have had a measurable effect in the form of growing numbers of immigrants from Latin America. Although the link between demographic and citizenship issues have had very low profiles in the political arena, we argue in this chapter for its importance in shaping the various forms of current international migration, especially with regard to subsequent circular migration and re-migration, in the midst of an economic recession.

A “capability view” on migration: some theoretical issues raised by the Southern Euro Zone highly skilled mobility

Abstract: The Southern Euro Zone countries show significant delays to adapt their social and productive systems to the EU goal of creating knowledge-based societies. A signal can be the increasingly higher level of skilled labor migration from these countries, especially during the actual crisis. Recent literature on skilled migrations often rejects the concept of “brain drain” (BD) arguing that circulation and exchange of people and knowledge is expected in the era of globalization. Using both conceptual analysis and secondary data, the paper attempts to highlight proportions of the intra-EU BD phenomenon and show how they may challenge the assumptions of circular migration models. It discusses that a BD problem likely exists in the Southern Euro Zone and proposes an alternative framework for its analysis. The main hypothesis behind this review is that the phenomenon relies on substantial lack of social opportunities for high-skilled people in the countries of origin as provoked by multiple factors. In this accoun...

Complex routes into HIV care for migrant workers: a qualitative study from north India

Abstract: Migrant workers are designated a bridge population in the spread of HIV and therefore if infected, should be diagnosed and treated early. This study examined pathways to HIV diagnosis and access to care for rural-to-urban circular migrant workers and partners of migrants in northern India, identifying structural, social and individual level factors that shaped their journeys into care. We conducted a qualitative study using in-depth interviews with HIV-positive men (n = 20) and women (n = 13) with a history of circular migration, recruited from an antiretroviral therapy centre in one district of Uttar Pradesh, north India. Migrants and partners of migrants faced a complex series of obstacles to accessing HIV testing and care. Employment insecurity, lack of entitlement to sick pay or subsidised healthcare at destination and the household's economic reliance on their migration-based livelihood led many men to continue working until they became incapacitated by HIV-related morbidity. During periods of deteriorating health they often exhausted their savings on private treatments focused on symptom management, and sought HIV testing and treatment at a public hospital only following a medical or financial emergency. Wives of migrants had generally been diagnosed following their husbands' diagnosis or death, with access to testing and treatment mediated via family members. For some, a delay in disclosure of husband's HIV status led to delays in their own testing. Diagnosing and treating HIV infection early is important in slowing down the spread of the epidemic and targeting those at greatest risk should be a priority. However, despite targeted campaigns, circumstances associated with migration may prevent migrant workers and their partners from accessing testing and treatment until they become sick. The insecurity of migrant work, the dominance of private healthcare and gender differences in health-seeking behaviour delay early diagnosis and treatment initiation.

Polish Migration to the UK

Abstract: The European Treaty of Accession in 2004 precipitated an unprecedented influx of immigrants to Britain. Among the new A8 (Eastern European countries with low per capita incomes) countries, Polish were the most dominant, most numerous and the most visible. With the accession to the EU, it was now possible for Polish migrants to move, to work in, and live in the UK with almost no restrictions. The present thesis focused on the changing migration motivations by contrasting the history of Polish migration to the migration since 2004.By analyzing aspects like age, gender relation, and social network, the question in how far the motivations have changed was answered and these aspects were examined through migration models by Lee (1966) and Ravenstein (1899). Furthermore, to discover changes in migration behavior, these aspects were compared and concluded that the type of migration has changed from chain migration to circular migration, implying that migrants return home after a specific interval. The accession in 2004 resulted in a new type of migration and points towards a cyclical migration trend within Europe.

Brain Drain or Circular Migration: The Case of Romanian Physicians☆

Abstract: The aim of this article is to tackle the brain drain phenomenon in the health sector in Romania, focusing on the dichotomy brain drain-brain circulation. Between 2007 and 2010, 8131 medical doctors leaved the country. However, statistics on permanent migration emphasize a not so worrying situation: in the same period of time, 1066 medical doctors changed their permanent residence. The profile of the emigrant include young medical doctors, leaving Romania at the early stage of their career. Whether they are exponents of permanent or circular migration depends on our country's ability in offering them incentives for returning. Primary data sources and results of qualitative and quantitative studies available in the literature are used in the attempt of offering an answer to the controversial issue of Romanian physicians.

Temporary and circular migration in the construction of European migration governance

Abstract: Increased interest and debate in Europe and at European Union (EU) level about the potential utility of ‘temporary’ and ‘circular’ forms of migration is accompanied by a certain elusiveness about the meaning of these terms. This elusiveness has actually created some opportunities for interactions at EU level to flesh out the meaning of these terms and inform policy development at member state and EU levels. By focusing on information gathering and the role of knowledge, the article develops a practice-based approach to analyse the relationship between research and policy, the role of the Commission and the activities of European Migration Network (EMN) in the quest for the meaning of temporary and circular migration. Information gathering and knowledge creation at EU level are shown to serve instrumental purposes by informing policy choices (‘evidence-based policymaking’) but it is also shown that existing policy choices cast a long shadow, shaping the context within which knowledge is developed (policy-b...

Regulating migration to Australia and back to the Philippines: Applying a ‘diaspora strategies’ framework

Abstract: This paper examines circular labour migration between Australia and the Philippines by bringing Australian immigration policies and Philippine diaspora strategies under the same analytical framework. An extensive Philippine bureaucracy regulates migrants at each stage of the circular migration cycle, and as a sending state it has an interest in migrants staying temporarily in host countries such as Australia. The requirement to return home at the end of an overseas work contract compels migrants to remain attached to the sending state, their homeland, and return subsequently. However, Australia is allowing a route for temporary migrants to apply for permanent residency while in the host country. This has implications for sending states that rely on migrant ties to the homeland. The paper argues that analysing the intersections between the themes of migration, development and diaspora strategies reveals the multiple meanings of temporariness during migration and in migration studies. It questions whether associating temporariness with precariousness and marginalization is an accurate representation of the complex conditions underpinning circular labour migration.

Undocumented Immigration and Human Trafficking

Abstract: Border and interior enforcement, legal penalties, and the market for smugglers distinguish undocumented migration from legal migration and introduce a number of challenges for migrants, employers, law enforcement, and policymakers. This chapter reviews the theoretical models and empirical evidence on the determinants of undocumented migration and its nature and prevalence around the world. Stricter enforcement vis-a-vis undocumented migration leads to unintended consequences, such as reduced circular migration and greater demand for smugglers. Although recent trends are generally toward stricter enforcement and more punitive sanctions for undocumented migrants and smugglers, there have been periods in recent history when undocumented immigration has been viewed with benign neglect. We review the costs and benefits of undocumented migration from a number of angles, including destination and origin countries, firms, consumers, taxpayers, native-born workers, and migrants themselves. We discuss the long-run impact of undocumented status on immigrants and their families, including the detrimental effect on integration and the limited extent of access to public benefits, such as health care and public pensions. We consider the tradeoffs of regularization programs, which may have economic benefits in the short run but may lead to increased undocumented immigration in the long run. Finally, we turn to human trafficking, which involves coercion, and review models and empirical evidence on human trafficking and policy responses.

Attempts on Measurement and Visualisation of International Circular Migration

Abstract: This paper provides empirical evidence relevant to the long-term international circular migrants admitted into Hungary. The principal aim of this research is to quantify the occurrence of circulation within international migration with the help of administrative macro-data. We measure the spatial patterns associated with international circular migrants. First, we define the concept of circulation within the conceptual framework of transnationalism. Second, we create macro-scale data set on long term international circular migrants based on an original statistical method. Third, we seek to gain further insight into the extent of international circular immigrants by country of citizenship.

Circular Migration between Fact and Fiction: Evidence from Germany

Abstract: Political actors in the European Union and in the eu member states have arrived to maintain that managed circular migration can generate benefits both for the destination countries and for the countries of origin of the migrants. Despite the fact that Germany so far has barely engaged in fostering circular migration through distinct programmes, a not inconsiderable share of foreigners from third countries living in Germany today can be viewed as circular migrants. This paper takes an inventory of the extent and characteristics of such spontaneous back-and-forth cross border movements by providing a specific, clear-cut definition for circular migration and thus analysing stock data on third country nationals residing in Germany. Furthermore, we scrutinise the German legal framework with a view to its propensity to encourage patterns of circular migration.

“The Most Open System Among OECD Countries” : Swedish regulation of labour migration

Abstract: The Swedish legislation on labour migration came into force in 2008, inspired by recommendations of the European Commission. In the regulation, there is a conflict between an employer-governed labo ...

International migration-development nexus : the case of the occupied Palestinian territory (OPT)

Abstract: The international migration-development nexus has attracted a lot of scholarly attention in the last few years. It is widely believed that international migration can have profound and positive impacts on the development process in migrant-sending countries if the governments of these countries adopt proper policies. In this paper, I take the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT) as a case study to examine the impact of international migration on the development process in this conflict-stricken country. The Palestinian case is an interesting case study because the OPT: has a very weak economy; has very high population growth rate; and suffers from high levels of political instability. Therefore, it has all key factors that push migration. In fact, migration, forced and voluntary, has been a consistent and structural feature of the life of the Palestinians since the late nineteenth century, and this extensive migration has resulted in a large number of spreading all over the world, including very successful and well-established communities in different countries such as the USA and Germany. In my paper, I examined five key aspects of international migration that could have a positive impact on the development process in the OPT: 1-Bilateral & multi-lateral temporary labor agreements between the OPT and other countries, that aim at reducing unemployment in the OPT; 2-Financial remittances sent back to the OPT; 3-Diaspora organizations that support development activities in the OPT; 4-Investments that are made by diaspora Palestinian businessmen in the OPT; 5-Return migration and brain circulation of highly skilled diaspora Palestinians. Based on a wide range of scholarly materials and official reports that are relevant to the international migration-development nexus in the OPT, I argue that international migration could be a potent development tool in the OPT if it is utilized effectively by the Palestinian Authority (PA) in a way that is sensitive and responsive to the peculiar and complex Palestinian context. The PA should formulate a clear policy about migration, and the issue of migration should be fully institutionalized and integrated into national development planning so that the positive developmental impact of international migration is maximized.

Return Migration and the Importance of Reintegration Policies

Abstract: SMERU's study on return migration (2014) has established a comprehensive migrant reintegration framework for Indonesia, enabling the mapping of reintegration programs in Indonesia. Most programs direct return migrants to self-employment, creating a wide gap between existing programs for selfemployment and those for wage employment. At the same time, circular migration in Indonesia poses challenges for designing sustainable reintegration programs. Nevertheless, these challenges do not reduce the relevance of having a comprehensive reintegration framework for Indonesia, particularly if the government intends to reduce the number of overseas domestic workers to zero by 2017.

Rural-urban Migration in China: Evidence from Anhui Province

Abstract: Rural-urban migration in China has long been recognized as circular migration. However, few studies have systematically reviewed when rural workers migrate, what factors affect the length of migration, when they return, if they migrate again, how often they circulate over their life cycle, or how circularity has changed in the past 30 years. This dissertation investigates these questions using a longitudinal dataset from two counties in Anhui province. The empirical analysis shows that over the past 30 years, more and more rural workers have participated in rural-urban migration. Although migrants have circulated less often since 2000, circular migration has long been and continues to be a major form of rural-urban migration in China. Age, gender, generation, education level and marital status all affect the frequency of circularity and the direction of migration. Frequency of circularity at first increases by age, then decreases. Male workers are less likely to circulate and they tend to spend more time away from their home towns (“outside”) than female workers. Mid and new-generation rural workers are more likely to move and spend more time outside, and they circulate less often than the old-generation rural workers. The location of family members affects men and women differently. Although having more children in the home town (“inside”) reduces the probability of moving outside for both men and women, women are affected more than men. Once a man has moved outside, the more children he has inside, the less likely he will return. However, having more children inside encourages a female migrant to return. Having parents inside reduces the frequency of circulation and encourages migrants to stay outside longer. It also increases the probability that women will initiate migration. Regression models show that having a high quality house encourages migrants to return, and this effect exists across generations, despite the fact that younger generations of migrants now spend more time in cities than in the countryside. I use a case study of a village (“Y1”) to understand why rural houses are important to migrant workers and their families, and thus to further interpret the relationship between migration, circularity, and settlement. I find that demographic changes caused by migration and the state birth planning policy have contributed to migrant workers’ enthusiasm for building large houses in the countryside. Although new-generation migrant workers do not have agricultural work experience and are not interested in agriculture, rural areas are still important to this generation because these areas provide affordable housing, family support, and future development opportunities. As a result, circular migration can be expected to continue in China. In the context of China’s rural-urban geography and socioeconomic structure, circulation allows migrant workers to take advantage of different opportunities and resources in both cities and the countryside. Thus, for rural-urban migrants, permanent migration to a city may not be optimal or inevitable. These findings have implications for policy makers, especially policy makers concerned with hukou reforms.

Circulation of immigrants to Hungary

Abstract: We measure the demographic patterns associated with international circular migration. Firstly, we define the circulation within the conceptual framework of transnationalism. Secondly, we create macro-scale data bank on long-term international circular migrants based on an original statistical method. Thirdly, we seek to gain further insight into the composition of international circular immigrants by gender, age, and family status. Conclusions indicate the need for future research.

Visualizing Australian internal and international migration flows

Abstract: Migration research in Australia has tended to focus on internal migration, partly due to the paucity of international migration statistics at the regional scale, especially for emigration. In this regional graphic, internal and international migration flows for 50 major regions of Australia are presented using census data on internal migration and immigration over the one-year interval before the 2011 Census together with new estimates of regional emigration. Because of the difficulties of mapping migration flows for a country with huge variations in the geographical size of regions, a new visualization tool – the circular migration plot – is employed. It enables a more complete, and more interpretable, summary picture of the spatial pattern of internal and international migration in Australia to be depicted than has been possible previously.

Mobility Strategies of Eastern European Immigrants in Spain during the Great Recession

Abstract: The Great Recession which began in late 2007 is characterised in Spain by the severe destruction of jobs which has affected the immigrant population in particular. To deal with the crisis and its consequences, migrants have used a variety of strategies. The aim of this article is to show the patterns of geographical mobility adopted by Romanian and Bulgarian migrants to lessen the impact of the crisis. Internal and international mobility are considered. The article combines qualitative and quantitative methodology, using data collected by the Spanish National Statistics Institute, the Spanish Ministry of Employment and Social Security and interviews with Romanian and Bulgarian immigrants in Spain and in their countries of origin. The conclusions highlight the significant increase in mobility between Spanish regions in the early years of the crisis, with circular, short term and cyclical displacements in relation to the agricultural season calendar. During the crisis the number of immigrants leaving Spain has increased, but not as much as expected. International migration takes a variety of forms: return, circular migration between the places of origin and destination and emigration to a third country.

Migration and Sustainable Development in the EU: A Case Study of the Seasonal Workers Directive

Abstract: Most discussions of the EU’s development agenda that emphasize the social dimension of globalisation in general or labour rights and standard in particular tend to focus on either trade agreements or aid. However, in 1999, the EU explicitly linked migration to its development objectives, and in 2011, the European Commission launched the Global Approach to Migration and Mobility (GAMM), which lists ‘maximizing the development impact of migration and mobility’ as one of its four pillars. A distinctive feature of the GAMM’s approach is that migrants are placed at the centre and their human rights are to be mainstreamed throughout the migration cycle. To what extent is the GAMM’s commitment to migrants rights being put into practice? How does the GAMM’s emphasis on migrant’s rights impact upon development? Using the recently adopted Seasonal Workers Directive as my focus, I will attempt to address these questions. First, I will examine the extent to which the Directive protects migrant workers’ human rights and ensures that they have access to meaningful labour standards. Second, I will explore the extent to which the Directive facilitates circular migration, which is seen as a key component of development-oriented migration. Third, I will consider the relationship between this Directive and Mobility Partnerships, which are the EU’s key instruments for linking migration to development, when it comes to migrant workers rights and circular migration.

Circular Migration and Human Mobility – An Observation

Abstract: The paper tries to focus on circular migration concept from developmental point of view. People are expected to move from one place to other when they found some favourable circumstances for living, especially during agricultural lean period when their level of income decreases. It is generally believed that only those people opting for circular migration who have a very strong bonding with their own place. This bonding has some social significance as well as economic impact also. The process also helps them to acquire knowledge which they can utilize in their own place provided adequate infrastructure and support activities are available. Thus, to make this type of movement economically viable from the society’s point of view, government should involve in keeping this movement restricted within migrant’s own place by creating desired infrastructure support. Otherwise chances are there that this movement may become permanent one and will create pressure on urban economy. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n1s1p133

Longing to Belong: Diaspora Students at the University of Puerto Rico

Abstract: Ese capitulo de la historia de Puerto Rico ha sido muy mal mirado. Hay esa nocion de distanciarse de esos otros Puertorriquenos, que por alguna razon, que locura cometieron para irse para alla. (That [diaspora] dimension of Puerto Rican history has been poorly understood. There is a notion of distancing from those other Puerto Ricans that, for some reason or other, what was that crazyness that they committed to leave for the [United] States?)(Mariana Feliciano, university faculty/staff)1I think there's always going to be connections to Puerto Rico because since I was born here, I wanted to reconnect to [Puerto Rico]. That's the reason why I came back to study, because I wanted to reconnect, because it's not the same visiting than living here. It's so different.(Nadine Sanchez, university student)2In the preceding quotations, both Nadine and Mariana spoke about diaspora processes; they spoke of departures and returns, of being a visitor or being at home, of a country's history with migration and of how that history is understood, interpreted, and studied. Puerto Rico was taken as a colony by the United States in 1898, and the Island's political and economic conditions continue to be intricately tied to its relationship with the United States. Its ongoing and unresolved status as a commonwealth of the United States facilitates a diaspora project that is marked by circular migration patterns between the United States and Puerto Rico and by an ongoing exchange of goods, services, policies, and cultural practices that influence the daily lives of Puerto Ricans in myriad ways. Duany's description of Puerto Rico as a "nation on the move" captures the dominant role that migration and diaspora processes play in constructing the Puerto Rican nation across varied geographic locales (Duany 2000, 2002). Large urban areas, such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, served as early destination points for Puerto Rican migrants and continue to be sites with long-established Puerto Rican communities. However, the Puerto Rican population also experienced geographic dispersal over the last two to three decades; mid-size and smaller cities in states such as Connecticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey are playing an increasingly important role in Puerto Rican migration and settlement patterns and Florida most recently gained a prominent role as a destination point for Puerto Ricans (Acosta-Belen & Santiago 2006; Marzan 2009). At the present time, population figures show that 58 percent of Puerto Ricans reside in the mainland U.S., and that 42 percent reside in the Island (Melendez and Vargas-Ramos 2013).Diaspora movements and processes thus play a powerful role in shaping Puerto Rican experiences. Yet, as Mariana explained in the quotation above, the diaspora dimension of Puerto Rican history is poorly studied and understood. In the arena of education, students like Nadine, who returned to Puerto Rico for university studies, are continually impacted by ongoing diaspora processes as they negotiate their identities in both United States and Puerto Rican schools, receive instruction in Spanish and English, and are educated on the ways they belong (or do not belong) as citizens within and between these two countries.Despite the significant ways that diaspora processes influence the educational experiences of Puerto Rican youth, there is scant scholarship that explores the complex ways that diaspora is articulated, considered or understood in educational sites and the ways diaspora processes influence conceptions of citizenship belonging for Puerto Rican students. Castles (2004) argues that educational sites need to be included in debates on the changing nature of citizenship because they play a major role in the social and political identity formation of youth. In the case of Puerto Rico, colonization and diaspora processes raise important questions about the meanings of citizenship: Who is included in the Puerto Rican citizenry and how do migration and place(s) of residency impact questions of inclusion or belonging? …

Transnationalism as Process, Diaspora as Condition

Abstract: In 2004 I embarked on 15 months of ethnographic fieldwork that spanned a six year period with Congolese migrants in Muizenberg, Cape Town. During fieldwork it was necessary to identify these migrants either as diasporic or as a transnational community given the purchase of transnationalism in the migration field. In this article I consider the concepts of diaspora and transnationalism simultaneously in reference to the Congolese migrants I worked with in an attempt to delineate the content of their experiences. In doing so I demonstrate that transnational activities occur within diasporic communities and posit as does Fasit (2000) that a diaspora is a transnational community. I further argue however that at the time of writing while other social scientists and indeed Congolese migrants themselves have referred to themselves as the Congolese diaspora, that the length of their sojourn in receiving countries does not warrant the delineation of their transnational community as one. The need for this conceptual clarification is important at a time when the world becomes less sedentary, and places start to interpenetrate each other through the presence of 'other' national citizens in a state. Further given the nature of the transnational migrant circular migration is possible. This reality should impact the manner in which transmigrants are received by states as their residence within receiving countries is not indefinite, nor necessarily desired. KEY WORDS: diaspora, transnationalism, Congolese

en ToRno A lA ciRculARidAd MigRAToRiA: APRoxiMAcioneS concePTuAleS, diMenSioneS TeÓRicAS y PRácTicA PolÍTicA* On CirCular MigratiOn: COnCeptual apprOaChes, theOretiCal diMensiOns and pOliCy prOgraMMes

Abstract: Circular migration is an attractive term that has entered the academic and policy debate during the last decade in North America and Europe. The popularity of the concept is partly linked to the search of new formulas to manage international migration. In spite of this popularity circularity remains a vague and elusive concept, and definitions have ranged from simple descriptive to prescriptive ones. Based on a conceptual and theoretical review this article highlights the analytic and empirical distinction between spontaneous and induced circularity. Induced circularity can be understood as a distinctive pattern of mobility resulting from the implementation of new temporary and seasonal labour mobility schemes.