Showing papers on "Context (language use) published in 1971"

Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication

Abstract: Ray L. Birdwhistell, in this study of human body motion (a study he terms "kinesics"), advances the theory that human communication needs and uses all the senses, that the information conveyed by human gestures and movements is coded and patterned differently in various cultures, and that these codes can be discovered by skilled scrutiny of particular movements within a social context.

Territory and Breeding Density in the Great Tit, Parus Major L.

Abstract: This paper describes an investigation into whether or not spring territorial behavior was limiting the breeding density of a population of Great Tits on Wytham Estate, near Oxford. The analysis of distances between neighboring nests showed that nest sites were more spaced out than would be expected from a random distribution; this indicated that interactions between the birds produced at least a local density—limiting effect. In 2 successive years, established territorial pairs were removed from a stable spring population in mixed woodland. The removed birds were rapidly replaced by new pairs. These newcomers were largely first—year birds; they came from territories in the hedgerows that surrounded the wood; the vacated hedgerow territories were not refilled. The hedgerows were found to be suboptimal in terms of reproductive success. Thus territory limited the breeding density in the optimal habitat. Song advertisement is probably important in maintaining territorial boundaries, hedgerow birds being able to detect the presence of individual woodland territory holders by recognizing their songs. The effect of winter food supply on the population was investigated by supplying excess food throughout one winter. This artificial food supplement appeared to have no effect on the number of Great Tits breeding in the wood, but did produce an increase in the case of a related species, the Blue Tit. The results show that territorial behavior influences density; this is not considered to be a function of territory in the evolutionary sense, but rather a consequence of spacing out that has been selected for in some other context. A possible advantage of spacing out in the Great Tit is as a defense against predators. Territory size varies considerably from year to year. These variations are the result of interactions between the birds themselves, rather than direct adjustments of territory size to fluctuations in some environmental resource. Even though territory has an effect on the number of birds breeding in the wood,it is not an important density—dependent factor acting to regulate the population.

Expression of Animal Virus Genomes

Abstract: The world of animal viruses appears to offer an unfathomable diversity of specimens but, as the molecular biology of the replication of many viruses has been studied, a pattern of behavior has emerged. The viruses can be divided into classes, each of which has its own method of transmitting its genetic information from one generation to the next and its own style of expressing its genetic information. Although in some cases the data are still fragmentary it is possible to outline the behavior of these systems and to place them in a formal scheme. In this paper I will present such a scheme and I will discuss in some detail the behavior of three viral systems which have been investigated in my laboratory. Furthermore, I will discuss some of the implications of the existence of these viral systems in the context of the behavior of normal cells.

Procedures as a representation for data in a computer program for understanding natural language

Abstract: : The paper describes a system for the computer understanding of English. The system answers questions, executes commands, and accepts information in normal English dialog. It uses semantic information and context to understand discourse and to disambiguate sentences. It combines a complete syntactic analysis of each sentence with a 'heuristic understander' which uses different kinds of information about a sentence, other parts of the discourse, and general information about the world in deciding what the sentence means.

The Delphi method: Substance, context, a critique and an annotated bibliography

Abstract: This paper is concerned with a methodology for efficiently obtaining concensus from a panel of evaluators on questions which are shrouded in uncertainty and can not be measured or evaluated in the classical sense. The methodology and its historical development are described, it is placed in context vis-a-vis other methods of subjective scaling, and a critique is provided. An extensive and current annotated bibliography is presented.

The relevance of education

Abstract: Since education takes place under conditions imposed by a technological society, Professor Bruner maintains that it is not enough to attempt reform through minor curriculum revisions. The program that fails to set knowledge within the context of action must be replaced. And to be truly relevant to our social needs, the scope of education must be extended toward overcoming the severe handicaps faced by children from impoverished areas.

Family structure in nineteenth century Lancashire

Abstract: A sociological study of the impact of urban-industrial life on the kinship system of the working classes in nineteenth-century Lancashire Dr Anderson asks 'Why should people he interested in maintaining relationships with kin rather than with other members of their social networks?' He explores this question through an analysis of Lancashire data which shows that life in factory towns posed major problems for the inhabitants which could best be met by help from kin In the course of his study the author presents new data on household structure, residence patterns and population turnover within the towns, migration patterns, the incidence of poverty, the role of the family in finding homes and employment for relatives, the age of marriage, parent-child conflicts, and baby-minding of the children of working mothers He draws specific comparisons between the situations in rural Lancashire and pre-famine Ireland and sets his findings in a wider historical and cross-cultural context This book will interest scholars and graduates specializing in sociology and history and will serve as a valuable reference book for undergraduates

Motivational Orientations of Adult Education Participants: a Factor Analytic Exploration of Houle's Typology

Abstract: To test Houle's typology of "motivational orientation" in a New Zealand context, and to develop a factor analytically based mea sure of motive for attendance, 233 adult education participants selected at random from three institutions completed a 48 item Education Participation Scale. A factor analysis and promax/ varimax rotation yielded 14 first-order factors which were subse quently intercorrelated, factor analysed and rotated to yield second and then third-order factors. The meaning of the resultant factors is discussed. In developing a model of adult education participa tion, it is proposed that participants are basically "being" or "deficiency" motivated. The concept of homeo and heterostasis is discussed. Education Participation Scale factors purporting to measure these different types of motivation are identified. Partici pation is shown to stem from motives moie complex than those originally identified by Houle.

Temperature Acclimation of Mytilus Edulis With Reference to its Energy Budget

Abstract: Mytilus edulis L is shown to acclimate to high and low temperature under laboratory conditions The warm and cold acclimation of oxygen consumption, filtration rate and assimilation efficiency are described for groups of animals maintained at three food-cell concentrations Complete acclimation (Precht's type 2) of oxygen consumption and filtration rate occur within 14 days There is no change in assimilation efficiency within the 28-day experimental period The results are integrated and discussed in the context of a simple energy budget In terms of the energy budget there exists a marked contrast between warm and cold acclimation An “index of energy balance” is proposed in order to assess the state of the energy balance When animals are fed above the maintenance requirement the energy budget remains in an equilibrium state during cold acclimation, whereas the acclimation to a warm temperature regime disrupts the balance and represents a physiological stress During warm acclimation, prior to the re-establishment of an energy equilibrium the blood sugar level increases, suggesting that the animal is required to mobilize and utilize its energy reserves

An Exploratory Model of Play

Abstract: Play is defined as a state of experience in which the actor's ability to act matches the requirements for action in his environment. It differs from anxiety, in which the requirements outnumber the ability, and from boredom, in which the requirements are too few for the ability level of the actor. Games are reviewed with illustrations from a cross-cultural context of traditional and modern societies. It is suggested that games of skill, strategy, and chance all share structural characteristics that allow the player to limit his experiences so as to maximize the play experience as defined. Further theoretical implications are drawn from the model in terms of the relationship of individuals and the social system.

Queuing Problems with Heterogeneous Arrivals and Service

Abstract: This paper studies a two-level modification of the M/M/1 queuing model where the rate of arrival and the service capacity are subject to Poisson alternations. The ensuing "two-dimensional" problem is analyzed by using partial-generating-function techniques, which appear to be essential in the present context. The steady-state probabilities and the expected queue are evaluated, and numerous special and extreme cases are analyzed in detail.

Probabilistic Prediction: Some Experimental Results

Abstract: This article concerns a study in which personal probability assessments regarding the outcomes of football games were obtained. The results reported here, which include a detailed investigation of the assessments, an evaluation of the assessments in an inferential context and in a decision-theoretic context, and a discussion of the performance of a consensus, show that methods such as scoring rules and bets are useful in leading individuals to make careful probability assessments. Considerable variability existed among subjects, however, with predictions determined by mechanical schemes and by the organized betting market proving superior to those of many of the subjects.

Studying Elite Political Culture: The Case of 'Ideology'

Abstract: “Elite political culture” may be defined as the set of politically relevant beliefs, values, and habits of the most highly involved and influential participants in a political system. Studying elite political culture requires methodological innovation which will allow us to do justice to the subtleties of the belief systems of sophisticated political leaders without doing violence to our normal standards of reliability and verification. As one example of the study of elite political culture, this paper presents an empirically based analysis of “ideological politics” and “the end of ideology.” After some clarification of the logical structure and empirical assumptions of existing descriptions of “ideological politics,” these descriptions are examined in the light of data from a study of the basic beliefs and values of British and Italian politicians, based on intensive interviews with random samples of 93 British MPs and 83 Italian deputati. The core of the notion of “ideological politics” is interpreted in terms of “political style,” that is, how politicians talk and think about concrete policy problems such as poverty or urban transportation. Each respondent's discussion of two such issues was analyzed in terms of 12 “stylistic characteristics,” such as “inductive-deductive thinking,” “use of historical context,” “moralization,” and “reference to distributive group benefits.” Ratings of these stylistic characteristics are found to cluster in intelligible ways, and on the basis of the dominant stylistic dimension, an Index of Ideological Style is constructed. Those politicians who rank high on this Index are also found to be more ideologically motivated, more abstract in their conceptions of politics, especially party politics, and more idealistic than their less “ideological” colleagues. They are also more alienated from existing socio-political institutions and are concentrated at the extremes of the political spectrum. Further investigation shows, however, that contrary to the assumptions of the existing literature, these “ideologues” are not more dogmatic, not less open to compromise, not more antagonistic to the norms of pluralist politics, not more hostile to political opponents. Partisan hostility and ideological style are found to be two distinct syndromes. The “end of ideology” thesis is examined by comparing the attitudes and style of respondents from different political generations. In both countries younger politicians are markedly less dogmatic and hostile, but in neither country are they any less “ideological” in their approach to political phenomena and problems of public policy. In the light of these data the “end of ideology” debate is reformulated. The probable causes and consequences of both the decline of partisan hostility and the persistence of ideology are discussed. Finally, some conclusions are drawn concerning the role of ideology in politics and concerning the theoretical promise and methodological problems of studying elite political culture.

Specialization of the cerebral hemispheres in scanning for information in short-term memory*

Abstract: Lateral specialization of function in the cerebral hemispheres was investigated in the context of a memory scanning paradigm. The S first memorized a set of letters (the memory set) and then indicated whether or not a subsequent test stimulus, presented in either the right or left visual field, matched any letter in the set. The test stimulus was either a letter or a picture of some common object; for the picture, S’s response was based on the initial letter of the name of that object. Reaction time was recorded and plotted as a function of the number of letters in the memory set. The results support the hypothesis that in a memory scanning task of this type, letter and picture test stimuli are spatially and verbally represented, respectively, and are processed in different cerebral hemispheres.

Empirical regularities in the diffusion of innovation

Abstract: Research on the diffusion of innovation has postulated three empirical regularities—the S-curve for diffusion in a temporal context, the neighborhood effect for diffusion in a spatial context, and the hierarchy or short circuit effect for diffusion in the context of a central place system. This paper reviews the evidence for each regularity, considers the consistency of each, and presents an explanation for these regularities taken together that appears more useful for future research than previously posited explanations. Our paradigm focuses upon 1) the distinction between innovation diffusion agencies and adopters themselves, 2) the relationship between the marketing surface viewed by diffusion agencies and the resistance surface offered by potential adopters, and 3) the sequence of communication systems associated with different stages of the diffusion process. By focusing upon behavioral aspects of diffusion rather than upon rigidly defined structural aspects, the consistency of each regulari...

Mind, Brain and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century. Cerebral Localization and its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier, by Robert M. Young, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1970, pp. xiv, 278, £3.25.

Abstract: The mind-body problem has lain at the heart of the way we think about human nature throughout modern thought. It became a problem for science in the early nineteenth century when efforts were first made to provide systematic observations on the relationship between mind and brain. This work became increasingly experimental as researchers sought to localise functions in the brain. This study in the history of ideas traces the problem of localisation of function from the first empirical to the first experimental work on the topic.

The Group Context of Delinquent Behavior

Abstract: Cumulative empirical evidence suggests that the majority of offenses for which juveniles are apprehended involved more than one offender. Evidence supporting this claim has generally been interpreted as support for the theoretical assertion that “delinquency is predominantly a group phenomenon.” However, most of the studies reported in the literature are based exclusively on official records (either police or juvenile court records), and thus the question arises whether the proportion of offenses committed by groups would also be high if other sources of data were utilized. This paper reports the results of a study of “self-reported” delinquent behavior with specific emphasis on the extent to which offenses that individuals report having committed took place in a “group context.” The relationship between “group violation rates” (proportion of self-reported offenses that were committed in a group context) and other characteristics of offenses are examined. An analysis is made of the relationships between group violation rates, seriousness of offense, frequency of violation, frequency of arrest, and arrest rates.

Electronic Conduction in Amorphous Semiconductors

Abstract: A review is given of some electronic conduction processes in amorphous semiconductors and insulators. A detailed discussion is given of donorlike and traplike states in disordered solids and the various transitions between them are discussed in the context of low- and high-field conductivity under dc and ac conditions. Recent experimental and theoretical results are described relating to amorphous films of SiO, Ge, Si, and C. Some experimental results and theoretical interpretations of photoconductive studies on SiO are also given.

Biogenesis of the Crystalline Inclusion of Bacillus thuringiensis during Sporulation

Abstract: The biogenesis of the crystalline inclusion of Bacillus thuringiensis has been studied in the more general context of sporulation and in regard to the formation of some spore constituents. It has been shown that crystal protein is essentially formed during stages III and IV, before the acquisition of octanol resistance. One fraction of protein spore coats which is solubilized by a reducing agent associated with urea or guanidine hydrochloride, is synthesised at the same time; a more insoluble cystine-rich fraction is formed later, during stage V, just before the heat resistance is reached. The analysis of bacterial extracts at intervals during sporogenesis indicates preferential synthesis of insoluble proteins (or proteins bound to membraneous structures), crystal protein represents a large proportion of these proteins. Immunological characterisation of crystal protein, with autoradiographic experiments reveals at least three antigens produced simultaneously after t4 and continuously throughout the biogenesis. The sporulation of a mutant non crystal bearing strain was studied; it has been shown that this mutant accumulates soluble proteins having some of the properties of crystal constituents; in this case the synthesis and maturation of spore coats arise earlier in the course of sporulation than in the wild strain. All results suggest a relation between crystal protein and a protein fraction of the spore coats.

The Urban Curandero1

Abstract: Accounts of the curandero in Latin America indicate reliance upon a largely peasant-derived sterotype. The utility of such stereotypes for understanding curanderismo in an urban context is questioned. With Bogota, Colombia as an example, it is proposed that the concept of an “urban curing complex”—a holistic approach to curative facilities in the city—replace present over-reliance upon one model (peasant) of curer style and healing.

Automatic correction of syntax-errors in programming languages

Abstract: A formal model for automatic error-correction is presented. It considers clusters of errors, using a local context to determine the corrections. The process can be embedded in left-to-right recognizers. The recognizer is used for standard syntax checking. When an error is detected, an error correction mechanism is activated which, by a limited backward then forward move, determines the possible corrections. An important aspect of this process is that it does not slow down the parsing of correct programs.

Contextual Word Recognition Using Binary Digrams

Abstract: This paper describes a special-purpose character recognition system which uses contextual information for the recognition of words from any given dictionary of words. Previous techniques that utilized context involved letter transition probabilities of digrams and trigrams. This research introduces the concept of binary digrams which overcomes some of the problems of past approaches. They can be used to extract offectively the "syntax" of the dictionary while requiring very modest amounts of storage. A computationally feasible procedure is described which allows the accuracy requirements of the character recognizer to be relaxed if it is followed by a contextual postprocessor. The modified recognition system is allowed to output several alternatives for each character, while the postprocessor selects the proper string of characters by having access to both the dictionary and the dictionary syntax. A theoretical estimate of the recognition rate is derived, and experimental results demonstrate the ability of the system to achieve low error and rejection rates.

The Revolution in Archaeology

Abstract: In recent years, changes have occurred in the goals of archaeology due to recent advances in methodology, application of the rules of the logic of science, and the uses of sophisticated computer techniques. The author views these changes, placing them into historical context, and discusses not only the emergence of the new paradigm, but also its implications for the field.