Showing papers on "Primary education published in 2004"

Local Capture: Evidence from a Central Government Transfer Program in Uganda

Abstract: According to official statistics, 20 percent of Uganda's total public expenditure was spent on education in the mid-1990s, most of it on primary education. One of the large public programs was a capitation grant to cover schools' nonwage expenditures. Using panel data from a unique survey of primary schools, we assess the extent to which the grant actually reached the intended end-user (schools). The survey data reveal that during 1991–1995, the schools, on average, received only 13 percent of the grants. Most schools received nothing. The bulk of the school grant was captured by local officials (and politicians). The data also reveal considerable variation in grants received across schools, suggesting that rather than being passive recipients of flows from the government, schools use their bargaining power to secure greater shares of funding. We find that schools in better-off communities managed to claim a higher share of their entitlements. As a result, actual education spending, in contrast to budget allocations, is regressive. Similar surveys in other African countries confirm that Uganda is not a special case.

Teacher-Child Relationships and Children's Success in the First Years of School.

Abstract: This work examines associations between closeness and conflict in teacher-child relationships and children's social and academic skills in first grade in a sample of 490 children. Assessments of te...

The Trouble with Ed Schools

Abstract: American schools of education get little respect. They are portrayed as intellectual wastelands, as impractical and irrelevant, as the root cause of bad teaching and inadequate learning. In this book a sociologist and historian of education examines the historical developments and contemporary factors that have resulted in the unenviable status of ed schools, offering valuable insights into the problems of these beleaguered institutions. David F. Labaree explains how the poor reputation of the ed school has had important repercussions, shaping the quality of its programmes, its recruitment, and the public response to the knowledge it offers. He notes the special problems faced by ed schools as they prepare teachers and produce research and researchers. And he looks at the consequences of the ed school's attachment to educational progressivism. Throughout these discussions, Labaree maintains an ambivalent position about education schools, admiring their dedication and critiquing their mediocrity, their romantic rhetoric, and their compliant attitudes.

Incentives to Learn

Abstract: We report results from a randomized evaluation of a merit scholarship program for adolescent girls in Kenya. Girls who scored well on academic exams received a cash grant and had school fees paid. Girls eligible for the scholarship showed significant gains in academic exam scores (average gain 0.15 standard deviations). There was considerable sample attrition and no significant program impacts in the smaller of the two program districts, but in the other district girls showed large gains (average gain 0.22-0.27 s.d.), and these gains persisted one full year following the competition. There is also evidence of positive program externalities on.

Describing Levels and Components of a Math-Talk Learning Community.

Abstract: The transformation to reform mathematics teaching is a daunting task. It is often unclear to teachers what such a classroom would really look like, let alone how to get there. This article addresses this question: How does a teacher, along with her students, go about establishing the sort of classroom community that can enact reform mathematics practices? An intensive year-long case study of one teacher was undertaken in an urban elementary classroom with Latino children. Data analysis generated developmental trajectories for teacher and student learning that describe the building of a math-talk learning community—a community in which individuals assist one another’s learning of mathematics by engaging in meaningful mathematical discourse. The developmental trajectories in the Math-Talk Learning Community framework are (a) questioning, (b) explaining mathematical thinking, (c) sources of mathematical ideas, and (d) responsibility for learning.

Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education

Abstract: This article revisits Brian Simon's 1981 judgement that for deep‐seated historical reasons English education lacks a coherent and principled pedagogy. Given that since 1997 the tide of educational centralisation has added teaching methods to those aspects of schooling which the UK government and/or its agencies seek to prescribe, it is appropriate to test the continuing validity of Simon's claim by reference to a major policy initiative in the pedagogical domain: the government's Primary Strategy, published in May 2003. This article defines pedagogy as both the act of teaching and its attendant discourse and postulates three domains of ideas, values and evidence by which both are necessarily framed. It then critically assesses the Primary Strategy's account of some of the components of pedagogy thus defined, notably learning, teaching, curriculum and culture, and the political assumptions which appear to have shaped them. On this basis, the Primary Strategy is found to be ambiguous and possibly dishonest,...

High-Stakes Accountability in Urban Elementary Schools: Challenging or Reproducing Inequality?

Abstract: In this article, the authors use data from interviews and observations in four urban elementary schoolsFtwo high-performing and two probation schoolsFto examine how schools respond to high-stakes accountability policies. The authors show that school responses to high-stakes accountability depend on the schools’ accountability status. In probation schools, responses focus narrowly on complying with policy demands, focusing on improving the performance of certain students, within benchmark grades, and in certain subject areas. In contrast, higher performing schools emphasize enhancing the performance of all students regardless of grade level and across all subject areas. Given the concentration of poor students and students of color in the lowest performing schools, the authors conclude that issues of educational equity need to be given greater consideration in the implementation of high stakes accountability policies.

Issues in Teachers´ Reinterpretation of a Task- Based Innovation in Primary Schools.

Abstract: Although task-based teaching is frequently practiced in contemporary English language teaching, it is underresearched in state school settings. This article contributes to filling this gap in the literature by using qualitative case study data to explore how a task-based innovation was implemented in three primary school classrooms in Hong Kong. Analysis of classroom observation and interview data shows how the case study teachers reinterpreted a new curriculum in line with their own beliefs and the practical challenges occurring in their school contexts. Drawing on classroom episodes, the article highlights three issues that proved problematic when the tasks were implemented: use of the mother tongue, classroom management or discipline problems, and the quantity of target language produced. Implications for the design and implementation of task-based pedagogies in primary school contexts are discussed.

Primary-Grade Teachers' Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Attitudes toward Teaching, and Discipline and Teaching Practice Priorities in Relation to the "Responsive Classroom" Approach

Abstract: In this study we examined the ways in which experience with a relational approach to education, the Responsive Classroom (RC) Approach, related to teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and teaching priorities. Questionnaire and Q-sort data were collected for a sample of 69 teachers in grades kindergarten through 3 at 6 schools (3 schools in their first year of RC implementation and 3 comparison schools) in a district with a diverse student body (54% ethnic minorities, 35% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch). Findings showed that teachers who reported using more RC practices reported greater self-efficacy beliefs and teaching practice priorities that were consistent with those of the RC approach. Teachers at RC schools were also more likely to report positive attitudes toward teaching as a profession and to hold disciplinary and teaching practice priorities that were aligned with the goals of the RC approach. Findings are discussed in relation to the teacher and school changes that accompanied implementation...

Explaining different types of computer use among primary school teachers

Abstract: In order to identify differences in determinants of supportive and class use of computers, path modelling was applied in a sample of 468 primary school teachers. Independent variables were categorised in three levels: demographics (age and gender), computer experience (computer training, computer experience expressed over time, intensity of computer use), and attitude measures (general computer attitudes, attitudes toward computers in education, and technological innovativeness).

Addressing Student Engagement and Truancy Prevention During the Elementary School Years: A Replication Study of the Check & Connect Model.

Abstract: Students who are at risk of dropping out of school can be identified retrospectively as early as third grade on the basis of attendance patterns, academic performance, and behavior. Check & Connect is a model designed to promote student engagement, support regular attendance, and improve the likelihood of school completion. The program has been used successfully with students attending middle school and high school, with and without disabilities, and in suburban and urban settings. An overview of Check & Connect, key components of the model, and an application of the model implemented with students who were referred for excessive attendance problems during elementary school years are described. Results from an evaluation of its effectiveness with students who received intervention for at least 2 years (n = 147) showed increased levels of student participation as evidenced by significant increases in the percentage of students whose absences or tardies dropped to or below 5% of the time. In addition, over ...

Reshaping the Future: Education and Post-Conflict Reconstruction

Abstract: The aim of this volume is to draw international attention to the key role that education can play in both preventing conflict and in reconstructing post-conflict societies. The author also hopes to alert developing countries and donors alike to the devastating consequences of conflict on a country's education systems and outcomes, as well to emphasize the importance of maximizing the opportunities to reform education systems presented by a reconstruction setting, adopting a long-term development perspective, and emphasizing equity and quality in the delivery of education services. Every education system has the potential to exacerbate the conditions that contribute to violent conflict. Based on this notion, the author argues that education warrants high priority in both humanitarian response and post-conflict reconstruction. The central message of this book is that education plays key role in both conflict prevention and in the reconstruction of post-conflict societies. It highlights significant findings on education and post-conflict reconstruction drawn from thorough research and literature review, a survey and database of key indicators for 52 conflict-affected countries, and a review of 12 country studies.

Democracy and Human Capital Formation: Education Spending in Latin America, 1980 to 1997

Abstract: This article examines the relationship between democratic representation and spending on education in Latin America. The authors assess the impact that democracy has on the distribution of resources between different levels of schooling and on total spending on education. Specifically, they test whether democratic governments allocate a greater share of resources to primary education, the level that benefits the largest segment of the electorate and that is most critical for human capital formation in developing countries. Using time-series cross-sectional analysis, the authors find that democracies devote a higher percentage of their educational resources to primary education and that they maintain higher absolute spending levels on education in the aggregate, thereby enhancing the prospects of human capital formation.

Physical Education in Elementary School and Body Mass Index

Abstract: OBJECTIVES We examined the effect of physical education instruction time on body mass index (BMI) change in elementary school. METHODS We examined data from a national sample of 9751 kindergartners in the United States who were reported on for 2 years. We used a difference-in-differences approach to examine the effect of an increase in physical education instruction time between kindergarten and first grade on the difference in BMI change in the 2 grades, using the same child as the control. RESULTS One additional hour of physical education in first grade compared with the time allowed for physical education in kindergarten reduces BMI among girls who were overweight or at risk for overweight in kindergarten (coefficient = -0.31, P <.001) but has no significant effect among overweight or at-risk-for-overweight boys (coefficient = -0.07, P =.25) or among boys (coefficient = 0.04, P =.31) or girls (coefficient = 0.01, P =.80) with a normal BMI. CONCLUSIONS Expanding physical education programs in schools, in the form in which they currently exist, may be an effective intervention for combating obesity in the early years, especially among girls.

Academic progress of students across inclusive and traditional settings.

Abstract: Effects of inclusive school settings for students in six Indiana school corporations were investigated. Results reveal that students without disabilities educated in inclusive settings made significantly greater academic progress in mathematics and reading. For students with disabilities, there were no significant differences in reading and math achievement across the comparison groups. However, a review of group means and the percentage of students making comparable or greater than average academic progress when compared to students without disabilities indicates a pattern in favor of inclusive settings. The academic progress of students with specific disability labels, namely, learning disabilities and mild mental handicaps, also supported inclusive education.

Physical Education in Elementary School and Body Mass Index: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study

Abstract: Objectives. We examined the effect of physical education instruction time on body mass index (BMI) change in elementary school.Methods. We examined data from a national sample of 9751 kindergartners in the United States who were reported on for 2 years. We used a difference-in-differences approach to examine the effect of an increase in physical education instruction time between kindergarten and first grade on the difference in BMI change in the 2 grades, using the same child as the control.Results. One additional hour of physical education in first grade compared with the time allowed for physical education in kindergarten reduces BMI among girls who were overweight or at risk for overweight in kindergarten (coefficient = −0.31, P < .001) but has no significant effect among overweight or at-risk-for-overweight boys (coefficient = −0.07, P = .25) or among boys (coefficient = 0.04, P = .31) or girls (coefficient = 0.01, P = .80) with a normal BMI.Conclusions. Expanding physical education programs in schoo...

Drawings as an Alternative Way of Understanding Young Children’s Constructions of Literacy

Abstract: As teachers seek to reflect children’s diverse experience in the subject matter they present and in the questions they explore, they must also embrace children’s multifaceted ways of knowing. Their major pedagogical challenge is to help children transform what they know into modes of representation that allow for a full range of human experience. In their lives outside of school, children ‘naturally move between art, music, movement, mathematics, drama, and language as ways to think about the world [...]. It is only in schools that students are restricted to using one sign system at a time.’ (Shortet al., 2000: 160). This study uses young children’s drawings about reading and writing as an innovative way of investigating their perceptions and understandings of literacy across the broad contexts of their lives. The study challenges the politics of classroom practices that privilege language-dependent modes of representation over other modes.

The Challenge of Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms at the High School Level: What the Teachers Told Us.

Abstract: Meeting the needs of students with disabilities in general education classrooms requires collaboration between general and special education teachers. In this article, the challenges of co-teaching at the secondary level are explored through the voices of general and special education teachers who co-taught in inclusive classrooms at a large suburban high school in the southwestern United States. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed for common themes and these themes were then checked with the teachers. Critical issues for teachers clustered around three major areas: the nature of collaboration, roles and responsibilities, and outcomes. These themes are discussed and examined for the implications they hold for other schools implementing co-teaching. INTRODUCTION The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) (1997) requires that students with disabilities be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE). According to IDEA this means: To the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are educated with children who are not disabled, and special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability of a child is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. [IDEA Section 612 (a)(5)(A)] What does this mean for high school teachers? This article will report the experiences of teachers in a large suburban high school in the southwestern United States as they work to include students with disabilities in the general education classroom. In order to meet the challenge of educating students with disabilities successfully in the general education classroom, collaboration between general and special education is essential (Rainforth & England, 1997). One of the ways in which teachers collaborate is through co-teaching which is "the collaboration between general and special education teachers for all of the teaching responsibilities of all students assigned to a classroom" (Gately & Gately, 2001, p. 41). The benefits and challenges of co-teaching at the elementary level have been relatively well documented (Jackson, Ryndak, & Billingsley, 2000; Manset & Semmel, 1997). Co-teaching at the secondary level brings a different set of challenges and has taken longer to be embraced by educators (Moore & Keefe, 2001; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). This article will explore the lessons learned from general and special education teachers who have been co-teaching in a large suburban high school. WHAT DO WE KNOW? There is a critical shortage of research into the inclusion of students with disabilities at the secondary level (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). The majority of the research to date has focused on teacher perspectives. Secondary teachers have been found to have more negative attitudes toward inclusive education than elementary education teachers (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). This literature has been criticized because it involves teachers who are not actually teaching in inclusive settings (McLeskey, Waldron, & Tak-Shing, 2001). In contrast, when McLesky et al. (2001) compared the attitudes of teachers in inclusive versus non-inclusive settings in grades K-6, they found the teachers in the inclusive settings to be far more favorable toward the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education. Smith (1997) examined teacher perspectives in an inclusive ninth grade team of four teachers and one paraprofessional in an urban high school. She found that teachers in this team had varied interpretation of diversity, belonging and the status of students with disabilities within the class. The teachers in that study used a variety of strategies to adapt curriculum but reported that the demands of high school curriculum for students with disabilities was seen as challenging. …

Books, Buildings, and Learning Outcomes: An Impact Evaluation of World Bank Support to Basic Education in Ghana

Abstract: This book examines the impact of World Bank-supported educational reforms introduced in Ghana since 1986 and related investment projects in support of basic education. A nation-wide survey of households, schools, and teachers found that both the quantity and quality of schooling has improved over the last fifteen years. Enrolments in basic education have increased by over 10 percent compared to 15 years ago. And whereas 15 years ago nearly two-thirds of primary school graduates were illiterate, less than one in twenty are so today. These improvements in learning outcomes are clearly and strongly linked to better welfare as measured by higher income, better nutrition, and reduced mortality. The gains in educational outputs can be directly linked to better school quality, manifested in improved infrastructure and greater availability of school supplies. Today it is the norm to have one textbook per child for math and English: rather than one per class as was common before the advent of reforms. Increased school quality can in turn be linked to the Bank's support which has financed the construction of 8,000 classroom blocks and provided 35 million textbooks over the last 15 years. Moreover Bank support helped sustain initially unpopular reforms, demonstrating the efficacy of working in partnership with a government committed to a well-defined sectoral strategy.

Inclusive education: an efa strategy for all children

Abstract: Inclusive Education (IE) in the context of the goals of Education for all (EFA) is a complex issue unlike health and labor markets, disability includes an array of issues crossing health, education, social welfare, and employment sectors. As a result, policy development faces challenges to avoid fragmented, uneven, and difficult to access services. IE may also be implemented at different levels, embrace different goals, be based on different motives, reflect different classifications of special education needs, and provide services in different contexts. Goals may include integration of Special Education Needs (SEN) students in classrooms or on changing societal attitudes to promote societal integration. Specific goals may focus either on improved educational performance and quality of education, or on autonomy, self-determination, proportionality, consumer satisfaction or parental choice.

An activity-theoretical approach to research of ICT integration in Singapore schools: orienting activities and learner autonomy

Abstract: This paper discusses the findings of two case studies (two primary schools in Singapore), which are part of a larger research study, that aims to examine and analyze where and how information and communication technologies (ICTs) are integrated in Singapore schools to engage students in higher order thinking activities. For students to engage in higher order thinking, they first need to have autonomy over their learning processes. The focus of the paper is on how orienting activities support learner autonomy in the ICT-based learning environment. Taking the activity system as a unit of analysis, the study documents the actual processes by which orienting activities are planned and organized to support learner autonomy in their contexts. By employing methods such as observations, focus group discussions with students, and face-to-face interviews with teachers, an account of how the activity systems within and between classrooms, and the schools are generated. The account identifies and describes five categories of orienting activities: introductory sessions to ICT tools, advance organizers and instructional objectives, worksheets and checklists, dialogues among participants, and tools for post-instructional reflection. It also highlights the constraints of time and lack of knowledge and experience in the contexts that the teachers are working under, and how these constraints are addressed.

A Review of School-Based Initiatives in Media Literacy Education

Abstract: When teachers use videos, films, Web sites, popular music, newspapers, and magazines in the K-12 classroom or when they involve students in creating media productions using video cameras or computers, they may aim to motivate students’interest in the subject, build communication and critical-thinking skills, encourage political activism, or promote personal and social development. This article reviews teachers’motivations for implementing media literacy in K-12 education, focusing on current efforts in elementary education, secondary English language arts, and media production. An overview of statewide media literacy initiatives in Texas, Maryland, and New Mexico is provided, and the author examines some public anxieties concerning the uses of popular media in K-12 classrooms and makes recommendations for future research.

Teacher Preparation for Environmental Education: Faculty Perspectives on the Infusion of Environmental Education into Preservice Methods Courses.

Abstract: Based on interviews with 18 professors of education, this study provides a report on the ways in which environmental education (EE) theory and practice are currently incorporated into preservice elementary education science and social studies methods courses. It further reports per- ceptions of faculty about the barriers to incorporating EE in preservice programs and their ideas about action steps toward a more widespread use of EE as an integrating context for teaching pre- service science and social studies methods courses. he power of the preservice curriculum is its multiplier effect. Where one teacher has the potential to impact the number of students taught throughout a career, a methods course has the potential to impact many future teachers and, ultimately, a far greater number of students. This study investigates the role that environmental education (EE) does and can play as an underlying philosophy and methodology in preservice science and social studies methods courses. The perspectives and practices of faculty who use EE to teach their elementary education methods courses are discussed and compared. Research shows that such courses and requirements are more the exception than the rule. A 1996

Digital Equity: New Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study

Abstract: This study examined young children’s differential access to computers in school and home and the varying conditions that affect how children experience computers. The sample consists of 9,840 public school children who attended kindergarten and first grade. Lower and higher poverty schools are about equally likely to have computers available for children when they start their formal schooling. However, the findings suggest that the digital gap starts to widen as children move into first grade. Even though children’s access to most computer resources at school increased from kindergarten to first grade, children attending higher poverty schools had significantly fewer computers and software programs available. Young children’s use of computers in their classrooms differed by school poverty status. (Keywords: access, equity, technology, young children.) As computer technology becomes increasingly prevalent throughout society, concerns have been raised about reducing the “digital divide” between children who are benefiting and those who are being left behind. Initially coined in the mid 1990s to refer to unequal access to information technology (Light, 2001), the term digital divide is now generally defined as the difference in information technology use based on ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Digital divide statistics are most frequently applied to computer availability and use in schools (Swain & Pearson, 2002), and to homes with computers with access to the Internet (Fairlie, 2002). Although substantial gains have been made in the United States in reducing the disparity in access that ethnic minority and lower socioeconomic groups have experienced, other disparities based on wealth continue for the most needy students. Digital equity is a social justice goal of ensuring that all students have access to information and communications technologies for learning regardless of socioeconomic status, physical disability, language, race, gender, or any other characteristics that have been linked with unequal treatment. Equitable access to technology resources (computers, software, connectivity) is one aspect of digital equity concerns. Other dimensions include effective use of technology for teaching and learning, access to content that is of high quality and culturally relevant, and opportunities to create new content (National Institute for Community Innovations, 2003). In the past several years, much has been invested to bring students and educators up to speed with technology. With the passage of the 1994 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Congress created technology programs to promote experimentation, research, and the proliferation of good ideas. The Universal Service Fund for Schools and Libraries, commonly known as the “E-Rate,” pro-

The sociology of education and work

Abstract: List of Tables And Figures.Acknowledgments.1. Education And Work: Establishing Some Terrain.The Ambiguous Relationships Between Education And Work / Education And Work: What Are We Talking About? / The Contested Nature Of Sociological Concepts / Education, Work, And What Else? / Education And Work In The United States And Elsewhere / Education And Not-Work / Plan Of The Book.2. Schooling And Socioeconomic Success: Establishing Their Relationship.Schooling And Socioeconomic Attainment / Does The Myth Of Schooling And Socioeconomic Success Hold? / How Do We Explain The Grip Of The "School For Success" Model Among Americans: Schooling As Panacea / Some Dissenting Views.3. Two Models Of The Relationships Between Education And Work.Meritocrats And Credentialists / The Meritocracy / Credentialism.4. Is The U.S. A Meritocratic Or A Credentialist Society?.The Status Attainment Model As An Organizing Framework / Some General Findings On Status Attainment: What Are The Overall Trends And Patterns? / How Do Employers Think About And Act Upon Education And Other Credentials? / Summary.5. Education And Work In The Post-Industrial Society.The Structure Of Contemporary Society / Daniel Bell's Formulation Of The Post-Industrial Society / More Specific Features Of Post-Industrialism And How They Shape The Relationships Between Education And Work / Education And Work In The Post-Industrial Society.6. Demographic Booms And Busts, Aging, And The New Cultural Diversity.A Demographic Perspective On Education And Work / Some Demographic Preliminaries / The Baby Boom, The Baby Bust, And So On / Racial And Ethnic Differences In Fertility / The Movement Of People: Immigration And Internal Migration / The Changing Life Course / Putting The Demographic Changes Together: The Racialized, Disorderly, And Forevermore Aging Of America / What Does All Of This Add Up To?.7. The Transformation Of The High School, The Coming Of Mass Higher Education, And The Youth Labor Market.Changing Linkages Between Education And Work / The Shifting Role Of High School As Preparation For Work: Schooling And Socialization / How Schooling Prepares Students For The World Of Work / Departures From The Ideal Type Of Socialization For Work / The Formal Curriculum / Vocational Education / The Hidden Curriculum And School Socialization / Interim Summary And An Unresolved Issue / The Advent Of The Youth Labor Market / The Transition From High School To Work In The United States / Conclusion: Young People, Schooling, And Jobs.8. The Possibilities Of A Learning Society.Lifelong Learning And Adult Education In The United States / The Rise And Fall (And Rise And Fall) Of Job Training / Apprenticeships, Community Colleges, And Other Adult Learning Settings / Other Forms Of Postsecondary Education / Learning By Long Distance: The Possibilities Of Information Technology For Bridging School And Work / Certifying The New Modes Of Training / Chapter Summary.9. The Future Of Education And Work.Conclusion: Education And Work In The "New Modern Times".References.Name Index.Subject Index

Educational Equity and School Structure: School Size, Overcrowding, and Schools-Within-Schools

Abstract: Consistent with the Williams v. California suit, our focus in this article is on educational equity, particularly the interface between equity and school organization. We concentrate on two structural issues, school size and school overcrowding, and one specific school structure, schools-within-schools. We organize the article as an interpretive summary of existing studies of these topics, concentrating on how these structural issues relate to social stratification in student outcomes, particularly academic achievement. Our evidence is drawn from both national studies and, when available and appropriate, from research that discusses the effects of school structure in California. We use this evidence to define which size high schools are best for all students (600900 students), which responses to school overcrowding are appropriate (building more schools rather than adding portable classrooms or multitrack year-round schooling), and how creating smaller learning communities in high schools can work well for everyone by reducing the potential for internal stratification. California policies, however, have not promoted these responses. In many cases they have actually exacerbated inequality in educational outcomes and assisted the transformation of the social differences students bring to school into academic differences. We advocate reforms that are associated with high achievement and achievement that is equitably distributed by race, ethnicity, class, or family origin. Reforms that raise achievement of children at the lower end of the distribution without damaging those at the top are ones toward which we believe our nation should strive. By offering empirical evidence of practices that lead toward this important goal, we hope to inform the important debates surrounding the Williams case.