Showing papers on "Social system published in 1974"

Social differentiation and social originality

Abstract: In this article we have presented a theoretical outline and a body of empirical work relating to the processes of social differentiation and social originality. If, in a competition, someone else seems to possess a decisive advantage or if mere comparison with this other person constitutes a threat to social identity, there are signs, in given conditions, of a tendency to differentiate oneself from the other, to be different or to do something else, to invent new criteria of being or doing with others or to combine accepted criteria in an original way. In other words, one tends to give proof of originality or, to use a Darwinian metaphor, to occupy ‘vacant places’. Doubtless the strategies described here only apply to certain social systems in which the visibility of the agent is an important social value and in which comparison may pose a threat to that identity. The restoring of identity by way of the search for otherness merits the attention of social psychology. But originality is not necessarily accepted or not necessarily immediately. Innovation may take time, may necessitate the creation of schismatic groups and the waging of battles for recognition, etc. We give a brief account of observations made with regard to groups of children in summer camps, laboratory experiments and the results of surveys in the scientific and artistic communities which fit into our theoretical framework. It will not be difficult for the reader to see that this article is a first step in a direction which, in our eyes, holds out a great deal of promise.

Factors Affecting Social Change: A Social-Psychological Interpretation

Abstract: The concern of the psychologist with person-blame attribution has meant a failure to analyze types of change and social causes of societal changes. Social change can be radically structural (revolutionary), incrementally structural, or cultural. Sources of change can be found in internal contradictions within a society as in Marxian analysis, in uneven rates of growth of various parts of the system, in contact and clash with other systems, and in generational differences. Ongoing social systems are based upon a number of mechanisms designed to insure a continuing input so that effective forces of change need some accumulation and mobilization of social disaffection along group lines rather than the alienation of scattered individuals or transient sub-groupings. The basic contradictions in our society have led to incremental rather than radical change. Generational differences have produced cultural rather than structural change. Thus, the divisiveness and rebellion stemming from differences in social class, age, sex, and race has not resulted in sharp deep lines of cleavage facilitative of revolutionary movements, but have been contained within the society. They may assume more significance, however, as the American system comes into increasing competition and conflict with other systems for resources, markets, and power.

The Structural Implications of Social System Size: A Three-Level Analysis

Abstract: This study examines the structural implications of social system size on three levels of the social system hierarchy: the institutional, the communal, and the societal. Cross-tabular and correlation analysis indicate that large size has a substantial influence on the internal organization of social systems at each level. The most pervasive effect of size is on the communicative structure of social systems. With expanding system size, disproportionately large amounts of human resources are drawn into the communicative components of institutions, communities, and societies. Professional and technical functions likewise tend to increase disproportionately, but not nearly as much as communicative functions. Comparative analysis also shows that current research findings on the negative effect of size on the managerial structure of institutions may not be generalizable to larger and more diffuse social systems.

Some Social Implications of Military Service and the Reserves System in Israel

Abstract: An uneasy relationship between the army and the society within which it operates is a situation characteristic of most contemporary, relatively developed countries. The major tensions crystallize around three foci: first, the incompatibility between the continuous decline in the centrality and salience of the national security issue and the increased allocation of human andmaterial resources to the military institutions. Second, the societal dilemma between an ideology which advocates the total segregation of the army from the other institutional spheres and the tendencies towards overt or latent role expansion of the military system. Third, the decline of military values and roles as a result of the impact of competing values. As a result of these tensions, the balanced exchange between the social system and the military sub-system tends to be disturbed. The military is often geared to maintaining a level of national security which requires a commitment of resources to this function exceeding the actual input of such resources. Consequently, the performance of the military is often impaired, and the government comes under pressure to increase military spending. Our paper deals with two democratic political systems which, to a considerable extent, avoided this kind of tension between the society at large and its military institutions. The comparison will be between Israel and Switzerland, with the emphasis on the former. The comparison will be made in reference to specific points relevant to the problems under study and will not be a general comparison of the two systems.

The Politics of Hsia-hsiang Youth

Abstract: This paper sets out to examine various aspects of the contemporary Chinese social system and their political implications by studying the social and political attitudes of a subgroup of Chinese society. The general area of interest is social stratification in China: the bases of social differentiation in the new society and how these are perceived by its citizens; the extent to which changes in the structure of society have been accompanied by changes in social attitudes; the extent to which ideological campaigns to change attitudes have been successful; the limitations placed by the stratified nature of society in its transitional stage of socialism on the effectiveness of ideological and political education.

On the Administrative Sector of Social Systems: An Analysis of the Size and Complexity of Government Bureaucracies in the American States

Abstract: This study is concerned with the analysis of the size and complexity of the governmental bureaucracies of the 50 American states, and more generally with the "administrative sector" of all social systems. Four hypotheses are formulated and tested. All of the hypotheses are supported, and this is interpreted as supporting a systems perspective in the analysis of social structure. Some of the most interesting empirical generalizations concerning the structures of "social systems" have come from recent studies of bureaucracies or formal organizations. Across a wide variety of different types of organizations, a number of similar structural attributes have been reported. In particular, the two propositions first formally articulated by Anderson and Warkov (1961) in their study of hospitals have found overwhelming support when tested on other organizations (see Blau, 1972; Hawley et al., 1965; Indik, 1964). These propositions in general terms are: (1) the relative size of the administrative component of an organization is an inverse function of the size of the organization; and (2) the relative size of its administrative component is a direct function of its complexity or extent of differentiation. The fact that these hypotheses have been so widely supported gives rise to the question: Do the structural patterns observed in formal organizations also manifest themselves in other kinds of social systems? For according to the formulations of systems theorists (see, among others, Miller, 1971; Parsons, 1951), all social systems from the small group to total societies have certain functional requisities that are common. It is also held that social systems share certain structural characteristics, such as "differentiation," which is often categorized as "complexity." (See Eisenstadt, 1964:269, who notes that "differentiation ... makes for complexity. . . ") As a result, a number of theorists (e.g., Miller, 1971) have postulated that there are a number of significant propositions holding for a social system at one level that also hold for social systems at other levels. Certain structural patterns found on one level of social system, for example in formal organizations, are expected to be found in social systems on other levels, say in small groups or society as a whole. In this paper this fundamental postulate of systems theory will be explored by testing on social systems of a higher level (namely the 50 American states) the two propositions noted above.

Developments in the methodology of social science

Abstract: I. General Methodology.- A New Epitheoretical Analysis of Social Theories A Reconstruction of their Background Knowledge including a Model of Statistical Decision Theory.- Theories and Phenomena.- Partial Interpretation and Microeconomics.- The Foundation of Science on Cognitive Mini-Models, with Applications to the German Methodenstreit and the Advent of Econometrics.- II. Methods for Laying the Foundations of Social Systems and Social Structures.- Systems of Social Exchange.- The Concept of Social Structure.- Societies and Social Decision Functions.- Honing Occam's Razor: A General System Theory Perspective on Social Science Methodology.- III. Vagueness, Imprecision and Uncertainty in Social Laws and Forecasts.- Toward Fuzzy Reasoning in the Behavioral Sciences.- Evolutionary Laws in the Social Sciences.- Methodological Analysis of Imprecision in the Assessment of Personal Probabilities.- The Necessity, Sufficiency and Desirability of Experts as Value Forecasters.- Rational Choice Models and Self-Fulfilling and Self-Defeating Prophecies.- IV. Methodology of Statistics and Hypothesis Testing.- Statistical Probabilities: Single Case Propensities vs. Long-Run Frequencies.- Variety of Objects as a Parameter for Experimentation: An Extension of Carnap's Inductive Logic.- The Strategic Combination Argument.- Index of Names.- Index of Subjects.

A general systems framework for social systems

Abstract: In evolving toward the postindustrial society there is increasing need for the development of conceptual models based on system theoretic principles. Identification and measurement of system inputs, the dynamic behavior of identifiable subsystems, the appreciation of stochastic factors and overall system behavior are important not only to our political and professional social system managers, but also more generally to everyone in society. Our implicit aim is to plan for and to control the system so as to perform in a socially good way. However there remain major difficulties caused by the lack of data on which evaluations of societal functions can be based, and the limitations of existing system methodologies to deal with the full range of complexity in societal systems. In this paper the relationship between general systems theory and social systems is explored, including an introduction to the general system characteristics which seem basic to social systems. Emphasis is placed on the discussion of social indicators and social accounts in the system theoretic context, and the adaptibility of system and control concepts to the social environment.

War and servitude in Segou

Abstract: This article discusses the problem of ‘slavery’ in the social system of Segou, Mali. The analysis considers the concept of jon on the axis jon-horon (captive—free man) elucidating the ambiguities of the two descriptions on the scale with slave and king at the extremes. The concept is discussed with reference to the organization of production, distribution and exchange; the contrast between state and private ownership and the nature of dependence are also examined. Jonya (the condition of jon) is related to the state and an attempt is made to determine whether it should be seen as a form of slavery or, on the contrary, as a form of public service; the warrior jon's political power is a significant element of the analysis.

Psychiatry, Systems Theory, Education, and Change

Abstract: Certain parallels have been drawn between the systems operating in psychiatry, in schools, and in industry. Social systems range from \`closed' to \`open', and this reflects among other factors a system controlled by authority or one where responsibility and authority is largely distributed throughout the system. Practically everyone grows up in relatively closed systems: family, school, university, and industry. To change such systems in the direction of `openness' is to arouse the anxieties inevitably accompanying change and the unfamiliar. If psychiatry is to extend its functions beyond what is commonly called treatment and become involved in many of the social problems of our time, then new skills and new perspectives are called for. In my experience, the present training given to young psychiatrists leaves them with a deep feeling of dissatisfaction. To `treat' drug addicts is to bypass the deeper underlying social problems. To witness racial tensions as a passive observer is to experience a feeling of impotence. But how many psychiatrists feel equipped to act in the role of interventionist in campus disturbances or other social crises? It seems but a short step from the role of the psychiatrist in a crisis intervention team centring on illness, e.g. attempted suicide, psychotic behaviour, etc., to more general social problem areas. In my experience, psychiatrists who are interested in social problems other than \`illness' tend to gravitate to therapeutic communities where a systems approach is seen as complementing the specific treatment modalities. But this is not enough, and exposure to the wider community outside hospital in the form of home visits, etc., extends the systems approach to an awareness of differing cultures, whether racial or socio-economic. I see this as a continuum where the formal psychiatric training is widened by exposure to a small simplified system in a hospital to the enormously more complex systems in outside society. Only then is it possible to conceive of an open system as one approach to \`health' through prevention. Our understanding of a methodology of systems change is only beginning. But enough models already exist in industry, schools, and hospitals to suggest that open systems enhance the possibilities of self-fulfilment for employer and employee, teacher and pupil, psychiatrist and patient. Having acted as a facilitator (process consultant or interventionist) in all three systems, I feel confident that a possible new horizon for social change is emerging, to which psychiatry could make a significant contribution.

Integration, Effectiveness and Adaptation in Social Systems

Abstract: The kibbutz system furnishes a new model of community life which emphasizes both the integrated group and the integrated individual. It is a way of life which includes within the framework of its community the full personality and avoids the fragmentation of the individual which is characteristic of most organized societies. It is a total-inclusion system in which members live, raise children, work and produce and grow old and die. A kibbutz is in fact a micro-cosmos society. It is a community which strives with considerable success to integrate technological achievements with social achievements. The discrepancy between technical advance and social progress is the crucial dilemma of modern industrial society. The kibbutz system thus is of interest not only in its own right, but in relation to more conventional social structures.

Social Work and the Sociology of Occupations

Abstract: Since Labor came to power in December 1972, increased and novel opportunities have been created for social workers in contexts in which, however, other occupations are also being offered similar opportunities within the same operational territory. This situation has urged social work to take a close look at itself as a collectivity, a social system for which effective communication and interchange with its environment—internal and external—is essential to survival and adaptation.

The revolutionary and the Marginal-Positivist: Does the social indicators movement open up new possibilities for a dialogue?

Abstract: A deep schism exists within the social sciences between the ‘Marginal-Positivist’, who feels meaningful change can be made through marginal steps in our social systems, and the ‘Revolutionary’, who feels fundamental alterations are needed before our systems will work for the betterment of mankind. This essay asks whether social indicators are compatible with the methodologies of each group, and if so, whether they offer a new possibility for a fruitful dialogue.

Social Group Work in Juvenile Corrections: A Synthesis of Clinical and Group Dynamics Principles

Abstract: Social group work in juvenile corrections involves the use of treatment strategies consonant with both group dynamics and clinical principles. The social systems approach to group dynamics and the interventive skills of the social group worker are mutually reinforcing processes in providing for meaningful personal and social actualization in the correctional setting.

Methodological Premises of Social Forecasting

Abstract: The forecasting of social futures has to contend with emergent novelty, as one phase in development is replaced by another and as social processes of diverse nature first come to interact. To this problem of emergent novelty the social forecaster must add the difficulties which arise because: (1) the social systems are much more complex than the aspects studied by the separate social sciences and (2) the sharing of parts between different subsystems is so great that their subordination to newly emerging processes can be very difficult to detect. At least three strategies have evolved to cope with these difficulties. Two have proven of limited value. All fall short of the kind of methodology which can be identified as necessary.

Ethical notions and social life: some problems in the measurement of attitudes

Abstract: In this paper an attempt is made to distinguish three types of ethical orientation. The first one, individually oriented ethics, consists of a set of norms regulating the social behavior of people in which the predominating norms are those which regulate behavior towards other members of small, more or less informal, groups. The second one, socially oriented ethics, does not so much evaluate the personal qualities of the individual nor the various elements of his conduct as a person, but rather the effects caused by the fact that he occupies a definite position in the social structure. Empirical data—based on Polish and American studies—support these distinctions. The third type of ethics, which emerged recently and is based on the concern about population growth, human resources, environment, etc., says that the earth is the only and common home for different social systems. It embraces also the relation of mankind to all other living creatures. This is global ethics.

Resilience Factors Inherent in Social Systems: A Comparative Study

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to compare five traditional cultures, evaluating the premise that in-depth information on situations of stress -- from inside the system or from the environment -- should elucidate the factors which endanger a system. Where are the most vulnerable spots? What mechanisms are inherent in a social system to maintain its persistence? What agents must be mobilized to prevent a breakup of the traditional culture?