Showing papers on "Stereotype published in 1991"
TL;DR: In this paper, a pictorial instrument was developed to examine perceptions of body figure in a cross-sectional survey of 1118 preadolescent children, and the results showed that the perceived body figure was associated with a negative image of the human body.
Abstract: A pictorial instrument was developed to examine perceptions of body figure in a cross-sectional survey of 1118 preadolescent children
758 citations
TL;DR: The authors compared the importance of stereotypical beliefs about and affective responses to national, ethnic, and religious groups as predictors of favorability and preferred social distance toward the groups, finding that emotional responses to the target groups were a more consistent and stronger predictor of attitudes and social distance than were social stereotypes.
Abstract: According to traditional theories, prejudice toward national, racial, and ethnic groups was considered to consist largely of a negative affective response toward the group or toward members of the group. More recently, however, the general approach to the study of prejudice within social psychology has been to emphasize its cognitive determinants, particularly in terms of the formation and maintenance of social stereotypes. The present research compared the importance of stereotypical beliefs about and affective responses to national, ethnic, and religious groups as predictors of favorability and preferred social distance toward the groups. In two studies, emotional responses to the target groups were found to be a more consistent and stronger predictor of attitudes and social distance than were social stereotypes. This was true whether stereotypes were assessed in terms of percentage assignment, as a likelihood ratio, or as personal beliefs about group characteristics. It is suggested that future researc...
337 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that Asian students have a marked predilection towards reproductive study strategies and suggest that approaches to learning tasks are more a function of the curriculum and teaching environment and that achieving and deep approach scores were higher for the Hong Kong students.
Abstract: This paper challenges the anecdotal stereotype that Asian students have a marked predilection towards reproductive study strategies and suggests that, as elsewhere, approaches to learning tasks are more a function of the curriculum and teaching environment. Evidence is presented from a survey of approaches to the study of Hong Kong students using the Biggs' Study Process Questionnaire. Mean scores on the scales of the questionnaire were compared with Australian results. The scores of the Hong Kong students were similar to those of comparable Australian students, but if anything the achieving and deep approach scores were higher for the Hong Kong students. The results are analysed to see if they can be explained as an experimental artefact or whether they are real, in which case they seriously question the anecdotal evidence which paints a stereotyped picture of the Asian student relying heavily on rote learning. Factor analysis results cast some doubt on the surface construct for Hong Kong studen...
298 citations
TL;DR: This article found that the degree of correspondence between the two components depends on the amount of attention paid to the target information, and that when subjects had more time to attend to the information, their global and trait-level impressions were relatively independent.
226 citations
184 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that a more masculine and/or less feminine gender orientation and variations in relationship seriousness were the two strongest predictors of both men's and women's involvement in courtship violence.
Abstract: This study clarifies and adds to our understanding of how gender and gender orientation affect physical aggression in dating relationships. The stereotype of male violence assumes that men exclusively or nearly exclusively use abusive and violent behavior to manage conflict situations with an intimate partner, and that the more violent men will be more masculine. Data from a sample of 336 undergraduates indicate that the expected sex differences were not observed; among college students, physical aggression in dating relationships is not gender-specific. However, gender orientation was significantly related to courtship aggression. A more masculine and/or less feminine gender orientation and variations in relationship seriousness proved to be the two strongest predictors of both men's and women's involvement in courtship violence. Findings are discussed in terms of the masculine mystique and the male role norms in our culture's superstructure.
92 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of person type membership on impression priming and perceived trait belongingness were examined, controlling for associationistic and dimensional factors, and results validated the unique contribution of a typological approach to person perception.
Abstract: The associationistic view of person perception states that people are perceived in terms of trait covariations. The dimensional view maintains that others are perceived by means of a limited number of dimensions. In contrast, the typological view is that others are perceived in terms of person types, and traits within a given person type have a unique interactive relation. In Experiment l, associationistic, dimensional, and typological representations of implicit personality theories were empirically derived. The derived stimuli were used in Experiment 2, which examined the effects of person type membership on impression priming and perceived trait belongingness, controlling for associationistic and dimensional factors. As expected, results validated the unique contribution of a typological approach to person perception. Implications of the present findings for the implicit personality theory, stereotype, and person memory literatures are discussed. People constitute important categories of objects. It is of no surprise, then, that thinking about people is such a pervasive phenomenon. We routinely form impressions of other people's personalities, make predictions about their behavior, wonder about their intentions, and evaluate their performance outcomes. In this article, we are concerned with the issue of how we think about, perceive, or cognitively represent other people.
91 citations
84 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated mood effects on perceptions of Asian or Causcasian characters who were part of a same-race or a mixed-race dyad and found consistent mood-congruent biases in such.
Abstract: What role does affect play in stereotype judgements? This experiment investigated mood effects on perceptions of Asian (heterosterotype) or Causcasian (autostereotype) characters who were part of a same-race or a mixed-race dyad. We expected that mood should (a) distort stereotype judgements in a mood-consistent direction, and (b) that mood biases should be stronger for mixed-race dyads that require more detailed and inferential processing. Happy, neutral or sad mood was induced in subjects (n=198) using an audio-visual mood induction procedure in an allegedly separate experiment. Subjects were then asked to form impressions of Asian or Caucasian targets associated with a same-race or an other-race partner. As predicted, we found consistent mood-congruent biases in such. However, both positive and negative mood effects were significantly greater when a target was part of a mixed-race dyad, a condition presumably requiring more detailed and substantive inferential processing. These findings are in...
66 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a replication of a sex stereotype study conducted in 1972 was conducted and the new subjects were 100 university students who individually responded to each of the 300 items of the Adjective Check List by indicating whether it was more frequently associated with men or with women or was not differentially associated.
Abstract: This was a 1988 replication of a sex stereotype study conducted in 1972. The new subjects were 100 university students who individually responded to each of the 300 items of the Adjective Check List by indicating whether it was more frequently associated with men or with women or was not differentially associated. For each item, an index score (0 to 100) was computed with high scores indicating association with males, low scores indicating association with females and scores in the mid-range indicating that the items were not sex stereotyped. The correlation between the 1972 and 1988 arrays of index scores across all 300 items was .90. No changes were found across the sixteen years in the affective meaning (Favorability, Strength and Activity) associated with the male and female stereotypes. In contrast, an analysis of the stereotypes in terms of Transactional Analysis ego states indicated that, across the time interval, the male stereotype decreased in Adult and Nurturing Parent and increased in Free Child, while the female stereotype decreased in Free Child and showed a trend toward an increase in Adult. It was concluded that while there had been some minor qualitative changes, there was no evidence that the two stereotypes had become less differentiated across the sixteen year period.
59 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group-relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner, which in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behavior.
Abstract: An experiment tested the hypothesis that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group-relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner. This in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behavior. Subjects were initially assigned to be members of a minority group, a majority group, or were not assigned to a group. They were then presented with a series of statements that described members of the two groups performing either desirable or undesirable behaviors. Results showed that unaffiliated subjects perceived an illusory group-behavior correlation, indicating the operation of a cognitive bias to associate the minority group with distinctive behaviors. Subjects who were themselves members of the observed groups perceived illusory correlations that favored their own group, indicating a very different sort of bias. The results suggest that a categorization-based ingroup favoritism guided the manner in which group information was processed. These data lend support to the contention that social categorization spontaneously instigates specific cognitive mechanisms that contribute to group stereotype formation.
TL;DR: The authors Altering Attitudes and Knowledge about Obesity: The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 131, No. 6, pp. 881-884, 1991; The authors.
Abstract: (1991). Altering Attitudes and Knowledge about Obesity. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 131, No. 6, pp. 881-884.
TL;DR: This paper found that Asian-American students compared with non-Asian-Americans on intellectual abilities and socioeconomic background were less likely to graduate than their matches, more likely to be placed on academic probation, have a lower grade point average, and withdraw from the university than their non-Asians.
Abstract: The findings of this study support the popular stereotype that the Asian-American college student is a "model minority" who tends to major in the sciences. This study also raises questions about the potential damage this stereotype has on young Asian Americans. Asian-American students compared with non-Asian-American students on intellectual abilities and socioeconomic background were (a) less likely to graduate than their matches, (b) more likely to be placed on academic probation, (c) have a lower grade point average, and (d) withdraw from the university than their non-Asian matches.
TL;DR: In this paper, a total of 149 social workers from 21 social service agencies responded to questions regarding a client after reading one of six possible case vignettes, and the results indicate that social workers stereotype clients who have been battered.
Abstract: A total of 149 social workers from 21 social service agencies responded to questions regarding a client after reading one of six possible case vignettes. The results indicate that social workers stereotype clients who have been battered. In addition, social workers are less likely to consider relocation as an option to protect the victim who is married to her attacker. Also, surprisingly, male-social workers focus on violence related concerns as targets for intervention more than do female social workers.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that women with glasses were viewed as more feminine and men with glasses as more masculine than women without glasses, but there was little evidence that they experienced a more negative "spectacle image" than males.
Abstract: Sex differences in the stereotype of eyeglasses were investigated via a three-part questionnaire administered to 217 adults. In the first part, subjects viewed one of five males or five females wearing glasses or not and rated this individual on a number of descriptors as well as guessing his or her three favorite pastimes. In the second part male and female subjects with and without glasses were compared on self-evaluations of the same descriptors and activities. They also responded to open-ended questions concerning their reasons for using spectacles and contact lenses and the effects of these visual correctives on their self-perceptions and the perceptions of others. In the third part subjects evaluated a typical woman and a typical man with glasses on the same descriptors.
These three methods of identifying sex differences in stereotypes of eyeglasses produced somewhat conflicting results. Photographs with glasses were judged as less attractive and sexy, but males considered the typical woman with glasses as sexier and more attractive than the typical woman without glasses. Generally, people with glasses were considered to be more intelligent and intense, and the stereotypes of the typical woman and man with glasses were highly positive. Women with glasses were viewed as more feminine and men with glasses as more masculine. Although wearing glasses affected the self-concept of females more than males, there was little evidence that they experienced a more negative “spectacle image” than males.
TL;DR: This paper found that cognitive and motivational processes interact in stereotype formation and maintenance such that purely cognitive processes are altered by ingroup-protective biases associated with own group membership, and that processing of group-relevant information by group members, in contrast to unaffiliated observers, is guided by an initial categorization-based ingroup bias.
Abstract: We propose that cognitive and motivational processes—generally treated as largely independent phenomena—interact in stereotype formation and maintenance such that purely cognitive processes are altered by ingroup-protective biases associated with own group membership. We report four studies on illusory correlation formation showing that processing of group-relevant information by group members, in contrast to unaffiliated observers, is guided by an initial categorization-based ingroup bias.
TL;DR: The data presented show that there are profound age, gender and class differences in health status in later life and these represent the continuation of inequalities observed within the non-retired population.
Abstract: Later life and ill health are perceived as being synonymous. To be old is to be unhealthy, while youth is associated with good health. One result of the widespread acceptance of this stereotype is that there has been little analysis of differences in health status within the post-retirement age groups. Data from the 1980 and 1985 General Household Survey (GHS) are used to consider patterns of health in later life. Using cross-sectional analysis, it is shown that morbidity increases with age. However, even for those aged 85+ the experience of ill health is shown not to be universal. Health status varies between both men and women and between the social classes. These differences are shown not to be the result of the varying age composition of the gender and class groups. The data presented show that there are profound age, gender and class differences in health status in later life and these represent the continuation of inequalities observed within the non-retired population.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined 330 non-abled young adults' thoughts, feelings and behavioral intentions concerning dating partially sighted and blind individuals and evaluated the impact of a "disabled" or an "able-bodied stereotype" on ratings.
Abstract: Examined 330 nondisabled young adults' thoughts, feelings and behavioral intentions concerning dating partially sighted and blind individuals and evaluated the impact of a "disabled" or an "able-bodied stereotype" on ratings. Results indicate that sighted young adults were seen more likely to date nondisabled individuals than partially sighted or blind peers and that sighted people think more negatively and feel less comfortable in dating contexts which involve someone with a visual impairment. Thoughts about reactions of friends to dating someone with a visual disability were particularly negative. Discomfort, negative thinking, and avoidance were not due to the stereotype manipulation. Implications for research on social integration and for counseling young adults with visual impairments concerning dating issues are discussed.
TL;DR: The results suggest that a childhood cancer stereotype can be eliminated; however, standard medical training does not reduce the negative expectations health care providers hold toward children diagnosed with cancer.
Abstract: To assess whether an educationally based intervention could mitigate the negative effects of a childhood cancer stereotype, 168 first-year and fourth-year medical students were randomly assigned to view a healthy child described with either a healthy label (HL) or an in remission from leukemia label (RLL). One half of the 1st-year students also were given information summarizing the psychosocial sequelae of child survivors of cancer and one half were not given information. MANOVAs revealed that medical students in the information condition did not evidence any biases toward RLL children. However, RLL children were rated more negatively than HL children on several dimensions by 1st- and 4th-year students who did not participate in the intervention. The results suggest that a childhood cancer stereotype can be eliminated; however, standard medical training does not reduce the negative expectations health care providers hold toward children diagnosed with cancer.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a between-subjects analysis of variance design to estimate the effects of rater gender, ratee gender, the gender stereotype of the job, and the gender stereotypes of the ratee's personal characteristics on a promotion decision.
Abstract: This study used a between-subjects analysis of variance design (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) to estimate the effects of rater gender, ratee gender, the gender stereotype of the job, and the gender stereotype of the ratee's personal characteristics on a promotion decision. The results indicated that female employees with masculine characteristics were evaluated as most promotable regardless of the gender stereotype of the job or the gender of the rater. We also investigated the personal characteristics raters reported using in making their decisions. We asked raters to select ratee personal characteristics that most influenced their promotion decisions. Discriminant analyses showed that male and female raters approached the rating process differently and that it is predominantly the gender stereotype of the ratee's personal characteristics rather than the ratee's gender that influences the promotion process.
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that children select between male and female silhouettes as the person described in brief stories containing highly sex-typed psychological characteristics (aggressive, emotional, etc.).
Abstract: Williams and Best's (1982) study of the development of sex-stereotype knowledge among young children in 24 countries was extended to Portugal. Subjects were 444 children (5-, 8-, and 11-year-olds), with each age group evenly divided by gender, and each age/gender group evenly divided into three levels of socioeconomic status (SES). Subjects were administered the Sex Stereotype Measure II (SSM II) in which children select between male and female silhouettes as the person described in brief stories containing highly sex-typed psychological characteristics (aggressive, emotional, etc.). The results of the study indicated a regular increase in sex-stereotype knowledge across the age range studied, an increase in sex-stereotype knowledge with increasing SES, a greater knowledge of female stereotype traits than male stereotype traits, and tendencies for the effects of age and SES to be more dramatic for male than for female stereotype items. Results were compared with previous findings in Brazil and other Latin...
TL;DR: The authors compared and contrasted stereotypes of mothers employed outside the home, unemployed at home with their children, and whose work role was unspecified, suggesting that they were assumed to be a mother at home rather than a generic or general entity.
Abstract: Stereotypes of mothers employed outside the home, unemployed at home with their children, and whose work role was unspecified were compared and contrasted. Two hundred and twenty-six randomly assigned university students rated how typical personality traits were of one of the three mothers. While the employed mother was perceived as retaining feminine qualities, she was described as less feminine, more masculine, and generally less desirable than the other mothers. Ratings for the mother with role unspecified paralleled those for the at-home mother, suggesting that she was assumed to be a mother at home rather than a generic or general entity. Implications for projects in which stereotypes of generic individuals have been described or evaluated are discussed.
01 Jan 1991
TL;DR: The results of a national survey of 10,544 households containing 20,505 children as part of the National Incidence Study of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrown-away Children as mentioned in this paper showed that approximately 354,100 children were abducted by a family member.
Abstract: Reports on the results of a national survey of 10,544 households containing 20,505 children as part of the National Incidence Study of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrown-away Children. On the basis of the survey, and using a broad, legal definition of abduction that includes many short-term violations of custody arrangements, the authors estimated that, in 1988, approximately 354,100 children were abducted by a family member. Using a more restrictive definition that is closer to the popular stereotype (i.e., a situation where there is concealment, transportation to another state, or an intent to keep the child or to permanently alter custodial privileges) they estimated that there were 163,200 family-abducted children.
TL;DR: The Stereotype Reduction Workshop as discussed by the authors is an organizational intervention in intergroup relations, which is described in detail in the paper "Organizational Intervention in Intergroup Relations: Stereotypes Reduction Workshop".
Abstract: In this paper an organizational intervention in intergroup relations, the Stereotype Reduction Workshop, is described. Outlines of the content, group dynamic processes, theoretical underpinnings and impact of the Stereotype Reduction Workshop are presented.
TL;DR: This paper found that women who owned a handgun were perceived as less likely to possess socially desirable male stereotypic traits, although women with a handgun gained in this respect, while men who did not own a firearm tended to be perceived as losing feminine body attributes per se.
Abstract: In the past gun ownership was primarily a male-only phenomenon. There has been, however, an increase among American women in gun purchasing largely for purposes of self-defense. In the first study we examined the consequences of women and men owning handguns, versus not doing so, for social perception. Given that gun ownership is stereotype inconsistent for women but not for men, such a violation of expectancies was expected to have a greater impact on inferences about women than men. Subjects believed that women who owned handguns would possess masculine physical characteristics, although they were not perceived as losing feminine body attributes per se. Women who owned guns tended to be perceived as less likely to occupy female stereotypic social roles, while men who owned a weapon were perceived as more likely to do so. Men who owned a handgun were perceived as less likely to possess socially desirable male stereotypic traits, although women with a handgun gained in this respect. In the second study where a community sample was employed, the main pattern of outcomes was replicated. Affective reactions toward male and female gun owners were similar, and less positive than for persons who do not own guns. Individuals with both positive and negative attitudes toward guns displayed the same pattern of inferences based on gun ownership and target gender. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for social judgment and stereotype use.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the aggressive responses of children to pictorially presented frustrating situations in the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study in terms of the sex of the subjects and the gender of the figures.
Abstract: The present study analyzes the aggressive responses of children to pictorially presented frustrating situations in the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study in terms of the sex of the subjects and the sex of the figures. The sample consists of 22 male and 22 female children matched with each other in terms of a number of variables. The results reveal no effect of sex of the child on aggressive responses; however, the sex of the frustrated figure depicted in the pictures significantly affects type and direction of aggression in both male and female subjects. The findings are discussed in terms of gender stereotype.
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