Showing papers on "Transgender published in 2003"

A Critical Introduction to Queer Theory

Abstract: Contents Introduction 1 The Social Construction of Same-Sex Desire: Sin, Crime, Sickness 2 Assimilation or Liberation, Sexuality or Gender? 3 Queer: A Question of Being, or A Question of Doing? 4 Queer Race 5 Performance, Performativity, Parody and Politics 6 Transsexual Empires and Transgender Warriors 7 Queering 'Straight' Sex 8 Community and Its Discontents 9 Sadomasochism as Resistance? 10 Fetishism(s) and Political Perversion 11 Queering Popular Culture Bibliography.

Feminism and Military Gender Practices: Israeli Women Soldiers in “Masculine” Roles

Abstract: Women's military service is the focus of an ongoing controversy because of its implications for the gendered nature of citizenship. While liberal feminists endorse equal service as a venue for equal citizenship, radical feminists see women's service as a rei•cation of martial citizenship and cooperation with a hierarchical and sexist institution. These debates, however, tend to ignore the perspective of the women soldiers themselves. This paper seeks to add to the contemporary debate on women's military service the subjective dimension of gender and national identities of women soldiers serving in “masculine” roles. I use a theory of identity practices in order to analyze the interaction between state institutions and identity construction. Based on in-depth interviews, I argue that Israeli women soldiers in “masculine” roles shape their gender identities according to the hegemonic masculinity of the combat soldier through three interrelated practices: (1) mimicry of combat soldiers’ bodily and discursive practices; (2) distancing from “traditional femininity”; and (3) trivialization of sexual harassment. These practices signify both resistance and compliance with the military dichotomized gender order. While these transgender performances subvert the hegemonic norms of masculinity and femininity, they also collaborate with the military androcentric norms. Thus, although these women soldiers individually transgress gender boundaries, they internalize the military's masculine ideology and values and learn to identify with the patriarchal order of the army and the state. This accounts for a pattern of “limited inclusion” that reaf•rms their marginalization, thus prohibiting them from developing a collective consciousness that would challenge the gendered structure of citizenship.

In the Shadow of the Object: Sexual Memory in the AIDS Epidemic

Abstract: Much of the work of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender past has involved finding or creating spaces in which to know ourselves and become known to others Given the role such spaces play i

Under the Rainbow: Rural Gay Life and Its Relevance for Family Providers.

Abstract: Under the Rainbow: Rural Gay Life and Its Relevance for Family Providers* We surveyed 527 nonmetropolitan gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender people (GLBT) and inductively analyzed their responses to open-ended questions regarding the "best" and "worst" aspects of being GLBT in that area, and how to improve their lives as rural GLBT people. Field observations supplemented the qualitative data. "Best things" included close relationships, high quality of life, involvement with GLBT social networks or organizations, and self-acceptance. "Worst things" included weak and fragmented GLBT resources, living within a homophobic social climate, and lacking equal rights. Suggested improvements included pursuing civil rights, fostering a supportive climate, and strengthening personal relationships. Ways that family professionals can develop commitment to GLBT people, enhance existing services, and advocate for political change are discussed. Key Words: community, gay, lesbian, rural, sexual orientation. Ramona: Driving south from Chicago on Highway 57 there is an abrupt shift where the city ends and prairie begins. The sky suddenly opens over vast cornfields and a loud quiet settles on your ears. The first time I encountered this shift my heart sank with the realization that I was about to become a prairie resident. Having spent half my life in south Minneapolis, a place where lesbians take for granted a tremendous array of visible and accessible resources, I was stunned to find myself within a geography that appeared to offer absolutely nothing. Like the urban gays and lesbians interviewed by Weston (1995), I believed in the "gay imaginary," the notion that rural life is profoundly hostile to gay men and lesbians, and that urban gay ghettos are the homeland "over the rainbow" where one can find true family, community, and happiness. Linda: Growing up in a town with less than 1,000 people, marrying a farmer (my childhood sweetheart), and raising our children in that same community taught me both the joys and pitfalls of rural life. I was always aware that gay people existed in my community, but we were implicitly taught to never acknowledge such a difference. In 1996 my oldest son committed suicide at age 21. Although the truth died with him, I suspect that he was struggling with his sexuality and felt that he would never belong. I will never know the truth about my son's situation, but his death opened my eyes to the impact that silence has on people's lives. By failing openly to accept differences, my home community made real the gay imaginary. The prevailing wisdom appears to be that "rural" and "gay" are incompatible. This notion has been upheld by omission within academia: Rurality and sexuality rarely are integrated in social science research (Bell & Valentine, 1995). However, our training as feminist scholars has sensitized us to reflexively examine the gaps between mythology and lived experience (Lather, 1991). Despite the allure and opportunity that cities may hold, some gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) people choose to live in more rural surroundings. Therefore, here we look more carefully at the lives of nonmetropolitan GLBT people and reconsider the accuracy of the gay imaginary. Our purpose is to present descriptive findings regarding the positive and negative aspects of rural gay life and show how family professionals can be part of strengthening the available supports. We use the terms rural and nonmetropolitan interchangeably. (Although nonmetropolitan is more accurate given the geographical range covered by this study, it is cumbersome and less readily understood.) Review of Literature Rural culture is traditionally organized by kinship systems that link blood lineage, legal marriage, and land ownership (Boswell, 1980). Cultural coherence is bolstered when there is consistency and fluidity between family, community, and religious systems (Salamon, 1992). …

Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth: Victimization and its correlates in the USA and UK

Abstract: Research on lesbian, gay and bisexual young people in the USA and UK has provided an important tool for advocacy and for developing appropriate public policy. Studies suggest that lesbian, gay and bisexual youth are more frequently victims of discrimination as a result of actual or perceived sexual orientation than adults, and anecdotal information suggests that transgender young people may be particularly vulnerable. During the past decade, high rates of victimization, particularly in school and community settings, has paralleled increased visibility. Increased media attention has focused on gay youth in schools, highlighting the need for support, appropriate policies and intervention. This paper reviews research and policy needs related to sexual minority youth in the USA and the UK and identifies strategies and approaches for reducing victimization and harassment and providing safer communities and school environments for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young people.

Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender

Abstract: Dans cet article, l'A se penche sur les visions feministes de la transsexualite. L'A reviste ici differents points de vue theoriques feministes concernant la construction socio-politique de l'identite heterosexuelle et homosexuelle feminine, ainsi que la definition de la transsexualite a travers l'identite de genre. L'A decrit ses experiences et ses motivations a propos de la transsexualite et de la bisexualite feminine, et analyse les points de vues feministes de ces dernieres annees

Transgender Identity and Suicidality in a Nonclinical Sample

Abstract: This study examined the relation between sexual orientation and suicidality among 73 transgender respondents, who were compared to heterosexual females (n = 1,083) and males (n = 1,077), psychosocially matched females (n = 73) and males (n = 73), and homosexual females (n = 256) and males (n = 356). Significantly more (p < .05)transgender respondents reported suicide ideation and attempts than any group except homosexual females. Sexual orientation did not differentiate transgender ideators or attempters from non-ideators or non-attempters. Attempters were more likely than non-attempters to report psychotherapy and psychiatric medications currently and previously as well as difficulties with both alcohol and drugs (attempters and ideators) or alcohol only (attempters). Implications for gender studies as well as research regarding suicide and sexual orientation are discussed.

The Misunderstood Gender: A Model of Modern Femme Identity

Abstract: Femme identity remains a highly controversial topic It has been maligned in both heterosexual and queer contexts, and is rarely represented in empirical literature In this study we examined how femme women experience their own gender identity Interviews were conducted with femme-identified lesbians; the focus was upon 4 content areas: identity development, experiences in the lesbian community, heterosexual society, and romantic relationships The interviews were analyzed using Grounded Theory (B J Glaser & A Strauss, 1967), an empirical method of generating models of subjective phenomena The core category in this model “Maintaining integrity: Upholding beliefs about sexual desire and gender representation” reflects the need to uphold their sense of integrity across a variety of contexts by confronting stereotypes about both women and lesbians

From Silence to Safety and Beyond: Historical Trends in Addressing Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender Issues in K-12 Schools

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide an historical overview of changing perspectives in education practice and literature on addressing lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) issues in public K-12 schools. This article describes how the presentation and analysis of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender issues in the past 80 years have evolved into one of the primary points of contention in the battle over what values related to sexuality and gender schools should reflect. Three broad historical eras during which dominant conceptualizations of LGBT issues in education reflect important shifts in perspective are outlined: (1) Homosexual Educators as a Threat to Children (1920-1979), (2) Identification of Lesbian and Gay Youth as a Population At Risk (1980-1989), and (3) Focus on Schools as a Risk Environment for LGB Youth (1990-2002). The article concludes with a brief description of future directions that research and educational policy on LGBT issues in schools might take to build on the founda...

LGBT Identity, Violence, and Social Justice: The Psychological Is Political.

Abstract: This article reviews the statistical evidence of LGBT violence in the United States and in the world. In the United States the statistics are from Amnesty International and the New York City Gay and Lesbian Anti-Violence Project. Statistics and other information about LGBT violence in other countries of the world come from many different sources. Reasons why this violence exists and international human rights responses are reviewed. The authors argue for a greater role for mental health organizations in the amelioration of prejudice against LGBT people and for more involvement of these organizations in social justice issues around the world. The article concludes with recommendations for future directions.

Diversity training in graduate school: An exploratory evaluation of the Safe Zone project.

Abstract: How can psychologists and graduate students become more affirmative of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues? Safe Zone is a diversity-training program to increase sensitivity toward, knowledge of and advocacy for LGBT populations and issues that affect them. In this exploratory study, the implementation of Safe Zone is described within a school of professional psychology; its effectiveness was assessed by self-reported behavioral and attitudinal changes and from participant evaluations. Results were encouraging with regard to the goals of Safe Zone and its adaptation to institutions interested in improving relations with the LGBT community, but additional empirical studies are needed.

An Invisible Population: Older Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals

Abstract: The US census reported that persons 65 years or older numbered 35 million in year 2000 [1]. This number represents 12.4% of the US population, or approximately one in every eight Americans. By the ...

Applying Ethical Standards to Research and Evaluations Involving Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations

Abstract: This manuscript examines the application of ethical standards to research on LGBT populations and the evaluation of programs and practices that impact them. It uses social work's Code of Ethics (National Association of Social Workers, 1996) and psychology's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association, 1992) to examine specific ethical issues as they pertain to research involving LGBT populations. It notes that when conducting studies with these populations, researchers may need to take additional measures to protect participants from harm and to ensure the relevance and usefulness of their findings. In addition, heterosexist and genderist biases are examined as ethical issues, as is the tension between scientific objectivity and values in research involving LGBT populations.

HIV/STI associated risk behaviors among self-identified lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender college students in the United States

Abstract: An Internet survey was conducted during the 2001-2002 academic year to examine the health risk behaviors, including HIV/STI associated behaviors, of self-identified lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) college students in the United States. A total of 450 LGBT college students completed the entire online survey. Most respondents attended a 4-year (96.9%), coeducational (98.6%), non-religiously affiliated (87.5%), public (68.6%) institution. Eighty-nine percent reported having sex with someone of the same sex and 45% had multiple (6 or more) sex partners during their lifetime. Most reported using a condom consistently during penile-vaginal (61%) and anal sex (63%). However, only 4% used a condom or other barrier consistently during oral sex and 28% used a condom or other barrier during their last sexual encounter. Injection drug use and needle-sharing behavior was low (2.1% and 1.1%, respectively). Comparisons with heterosexual college students' HIV/STI associated risk behaviors are included. Results may be useful for HIV/STI prevention programs targeting LGBT college students.

Woman-to-Woman Sexual Violence: Does She Call It Rape?

Abstract: Woman-to-Woman Sexual Violence: Does She Call It Rape? Lori B. Girshick. Boston: Northeastern University Press. 2002. 201 pp. ISBN 1-55553-527-5. $16.95 (paper). If sexual violence is rooted in patriarchy, male dominance, and oppression of women, then how do we explain women's sexual violence? If women are nonviolent and lesbianism an egalitarian Utopia, then how do we understand women's violence against other women, especially their own partners and lovers? As Lori Girshick so ably points out, heterosexism and homophobia mean that the ways women experience sexual violence by other women are frequently not recognized as rape or sexual assault, thus depriving victims of support and services. Women-to-Woman Sexual Violence confronts the paucity of research, popular press attention (even in the queer press), and services. Sexual violence is "any unwanted sexual activity" and includes "contact" and "noncontact" sexual activities (p. 19). Girshick's data come from a self-administered, largely open-ended survey and follow-up interviews collecting detailed information about sexual violence incidents and their aftermath and women's understandings of sexual violence and homophobia. Participants were recruited via announcements posted throughout the United States to domestic violence and rape crisis agencies and feminist, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender centers, organizations, groups, and media. The 70 women, aged 18-64 (average age 37), thus comprise a self-selected, unrepresentative, but nearly national sample of women who experienced woman-to-woman sexual violence. Most of the women were White, lesbian, and working or middle class in terms of education and occupation, though frequently not income. They described 91 situations of sexual violence, most of which occurred during or before the 1980s and when the average age of the women was under 25. The women's youth and the historical time period (the earliest years of lesbian activism), in combination with significant abuse histories for many women, made it more difficult for them to speak out and seek help. The experiences of these women are remarkably similar to those of women experiencing heterosexual violence. Most of the incidents occurred within the context of committed or romantic relationships or with acquaintances or friends. Nearly half of the incidents occurred in a battering relationship. Women frequently remained silent about their victimization, either because of the assailant's terrorizing or because of their own or their friends' disbelief. Legal assistance was seldom sought and rarely effective. In relating the incidents of sexual violence suffered by these women, Girshick makes clear that violence is not about gender but about power and control. Citing bell hooks' (1984) examination of interlocking systems of oppression and domination, she explores the ways in which heterosexism (and monosexism) and homophobia (also bi- and transphobia) collude to assist the assailant in maintaining power over her victim. …

Transgender Politics in the UK

Abstract: This article develops notions of transgender citizenship in relation to existing approaches to citizenship, including liberalism, neoliberalism and communitarianism. Changes relating to New Labour's Third Way provide some support for transgender citizenship. However, these are limited because New Labour has yet to fully support gender diversity, to embrace different forms of morality, to tackle underlying structural inequalities and to develop sufficiently strong mechanisms for participation. The article argues that a robust participatory democracy is necessary for ensuring transgender political participation and social inclusion. Full transgender citizenship would lead to fundamental changes in the social organization of gender and social policy positions concerning gender.

A member of the wedding? Heterosexism and family ritual.

Abstract: SUMMARY Heterosexism as an interpersonal dynamic at weddings was examined using feminist critical science. Data were collected from 45 gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people who attended focus groups. Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender participants described multiple interactions in which they were devalued or hidden while het-erosexuality was elevated, as well as interactions in which they or another family member resisted heterosexism. Weddings were perceived to be difficult, and participation in them was questioned. As part of their critique of weddings, participants offered a vision of relationships that was based on commitment, rather than heterosexuality or material benefits. Results of this study were used to create a brochure and Website for educating heterosexual people planning weddings.

Research Methods with Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations

Abstract: * About the Contributors * Foreword: Toward the Future of Research on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations * Acknowledgments * Exploring Current Themes in Research on Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations * When Interviewing "Family": Maximizing the Insider Advantage in the Qualitative Study of Lesbians and Gay Men * Researching Gay and Lesbian Domestic Violence: The Journey of a Non-LGBT Researcher * Empowering Gay and Lesbian Caregivers and Uncovering Their Unique Experiences Through the Use of Qualitative Methods * Methodological Issues in Conducting Community-Based Health and Social Services Research Among Urban Black and African American LGBT Populations * Research with Gay Drug Users and the Interface with HIV: Current Methodological Issues for Social Work Research * Self-Disclosure Stress: Trauma as an Example of an Intervening Variable in Research with Lesbian Women * Dimensions of Lesbian Identity During Adolescence and Young Adulthood * 8,000 Miles and Still Counting...Reaching Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Adolescents for Research * A Study of Sampling in Research in the Field of Lesbian and Gay Studies * Matching AIDS Service Organizations' Philosophy of Service Provision with a Compatible Style of Program Evaluation * Applying Ethical Standards to Research and Evaluations Involving Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations * Index * Reference Notes Included

Sexual Identities and Political Engagements: A Queer Survey

Abstract: This project asks if the theoretical contributions of queer theory accurately characterize sexual identity and politics in “mainstream” lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, transsexual, queer (LGBTQ) communities. Responses to a mail survey distributed in San Diego, California, and Albany, New York, indicate that self-identified queers are politically and sexually more radical than their nonqueer counterparts, supporting the contentions of queer theorists. Nonetheless, self-identified queers also support “traditional” movement goals, such as marriage, military service, and litigating for social change. In conclusion, we suggest that “queer” may complicate conceptions of political strategy as well as sexual and political identity. Sexuality research has grown exponentially over the past few years and often appears to be branching off in at least two different directions with very different methodological approaches dominating each branch. On one side, queer theorizing, built on a social constructivist foundation, has raised important questions about the ways that identity categories emerge from and evolve at numerous discursive sites, often inspiring liberationist political tendencies that challenge established hierarchies of power. On the other side, gay and lesbian studies scholarship, often assuming fixed and stable identities, explores equally important questions about the political, economic, and sociocultural lives of sexual minorities. Our project originates at an infrequently traversed intersection of these two approaches and

Methodological issues in conducting community-based health and social services research among urban Black and African American LGBT populations.

Abstract: Health and social service utilization experiences of disenfranchised groups have recently gained renewed public attention. Reducing and eliminating racial disparities in health care has become a major national agenda. While a fairly substantial literature on Black and African American health outcomes and social service utilization does exist, and may help to influence interventions to reduce disparities, there is no comparable literature for Black and African American lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons. In this article the author examines factors affecting research with urban Black and African American LGBT populations. A brief case study is included that demonstrates the viability of the recommended research methods and discusses the possible negative consequences of deviating from these methodological suggestions.

Essentialism, Culture, and Beliefs about Gender among the Aravanis of Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the gender beliefs of the Aravanis, a transgender community in Tamil Nadu. Gender transgression and gender transformation (attempts to change gender) tasks were used to examine the essentialist notions of the Aravanis' beliefs about gender. A total of 100 Aravanis participated in the study. In the gender transgression task the Aravanis endorsed both male and female gender transgressions. In the gender transformation task the Aravanis believed in the male to female transformation but not in the female to male transformation. I argue that the asymmetry in the Aravanis' responses suggests that their beliefs about gender are consistent with Hindu patriarchal beliefs that feminine gender is essential and primordial, whereas masculine gender transformations are viewed as part of the male prerogative. The marginalized gender experience of the Aravanis influenced their judgments about gender transgressions but not their beliefs about gender transformations. I also discuss the implications of a cultural psychology of gender.

Wearing My Identity: A Transgender Teacher in the Classroom

Abstract: The term transgender is used by people whose gender identity or expression falls outside the boundaries of traditional gender expectations. In educational systems, transgender issues are becoming increasingly relevant as both students and staff "come out" as transgender, and as young people explore non-normative gender expression. In comparison to the empirical and theoretical discussions on gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth issues in education, research on transgender youth is sparse, and academic research on transgender teachers is non-existent. Like closeted gay, lesbian, and bisexual teachers, transgender teachers are isolated, hidden, and silent about their authentic identities. This exploratory study offers one transgender-identified teacher's story in an urban public school system. The issues addressed include gender dynamics in the classroom, relationships with students, the connections between sexual orientation and gender identity, and discrimination in the work environment.

Performative Genders, Perverse Desires: A Bio-History of Thailand's Same-Sex and Transgender Cultures

Abstract: In this study I explore an apparent paradox in the history of Thailands same-sex and transgender cultures. In Thailand the later decades of the twentieth century were witness to a proliferation of transgender transsexual and male and female same-sex identity categories and a dramatic increase in the public visibility of new gender/sexual cultures. However this proliferation of identities and cultures which superficially mirrors the historical situation in the West occurred in the absence of the forms of bio-power that Foucault argues incited the origin of the contemporary discourse of sexuality and the associated speciation of the homosexual and the heterosexual. In exploring this apparent paradox I forget the details of Foucaults history of sexuality in the West while relying upon his conception of bio-history and his genealogical method. While the empirical contents of The History of Sexuality: Volume 1 offer little insight into transformations of Thai gender and eroticism Foucaults genealogical approach provides a productive tool for understanding how local forms of power incite distinctive and equally local forms of discourse and subjectivity. In this study I draw upon Butlers Foucault-influenced account of the performativity of gender and sex to trace the ways that shifts in the forms of bio-power over gender in Thailand not only altered norms of masculinity and femininity but also radically changed patterns of desire and identity. I account for the emergence of the new Thai identities and gender/sexual cultures by mapping the precise character of changes in the forms of power that the Thai state deployed in its efforts to civilise the public gendering of the populace--a project of power incited into being as a response to the combined challenges of English French Japanese and American imperialisms in Southeast Asia in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This study reveals that even in the absence of Western-style interventions in sexuality the disruptions of traditional Siamese gender culture caused by the states response to the West radically altered the performative norms of masculinity and femininity which in turn contributed to the proliferation of new forms of transgender and same-sex identity. This Thai case study provides a counter-example to the presumption that modernity and globalisation necessarily lead to an international homogenisation of sexual cultures. (excerpt)

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth: Health Concerns, Services, and Care

Abstract: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth have emerged only recently, during the 1990s, as a separate cultural group. In earlier decades, relatively few youth self-identified or came out...

Literacy and Sexual Identity.

Abstract: In recent years, literacy teachers and researchers have begun to understand the important links between reading and writing practices and how people develop and enact identities in the world (eg, Hagood, 2002; McCarthey, 2001; Sutherland, 2002) As a consequence of our understanding that "identity matters" (McCarthey & Moje, 2002) in the development of one's reading and writing practices and, conversely, that reading and writing matter for how one identifies and is identified, literacy educators have looked closely at aspects of identity such as race and ethnicity, social class, gender, and religious affiliation One aspect that has not had as much attention, however, is the one associated with sexual orientation and development When we refer to sexual identity, we refer to the range of ways one might be identified, including as male or female and as straight, gay, bisexual, lesbian, or transgender

Joined-up government, 'Community Safety' and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender 'active citizens'

Abstract: Joined-up government, modernizing government, community safety and multi-agency partnerships are explored here in an attempt to understand the contemporary `policing' of hate crime; in this instance, crimes and incidents motivated by homophobia (and transphobia). In the first half of the article, the focus is on the social and political context of the emergence of `participatory' modes of government and multi-agency `community safety' policing in response to the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act and the 1999 Local Government Act. In the second half of the article, the focus will be on the multi-agency response to homo-phobic and transphobic incidents and the policing of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (lgbt) community in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. In this case study, the main assumptions behind the attempt to create lgbt `active citizens' and `active communities' (active in their own policing) in Southampton, in particular, will be critically evaluated. The main points that will be raised here are: 1) the multi-agency response to homophobic incidents in Southampton prioritizes, first, improving efficiency and raising awareness in the agencies and services that are in contact with the lgbt community, and, second, opening lines of communication and building trust between police and the organizations and agencies `representing' the lgbt community; and 2)empowerment programmes such as these should not be taken at face value, but must be critically examined in relation to some of the following questions: who is and who is not being invited to be the active `lgbt' citizen here? And does the lgbt community's right to fair, sympathetic and equitable policing bring with it hidden and costly responsibilities?