Showing papers on "Written language published in 1977"

Writing as a Mode of Learning.

Abstract: WRITING represents a unique mode of learning-not merely valuable, not merely special, but unique. That will be my contention in this paper. The thesis is straightforward. Writing serves learning uniquely because writing as process-andproduct possesses a cluster of attributes that correspond uniquely to certain powerful learning strategies. Although the notion is clearly debatable, it is scarcely a private belief. Some of the most distinguished contemporary psychologists have at least implied such a role for writing as heuristic. Lev Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, and Jerome Bruner, for example, have all pointed out that higher cognitive functions, such as analysis and synthesis, seem to develop most fully only with the support system of verbal language-particularly, it seems, of written language.' Some of their arguments and evidence will be incorporated here. Here I have a prior purpose: to describe as tellingly as possible how writing uniquely corresponds to certain powerful learning strategies. Making such a case for the uniqueness of writing should logically and theoretically involve establishing many contrasts, distinctions between (1) writing and all other verbal languaging processes-listening, reading, and especially talking; (2) writing and all other forms of composing, such as

From Utterance to Text: The Bias of Language in Speech and Writing

Abstract: In this far-ranging essay David Olson attempts to reframe current controversies over several aspects of language, including meaning, comprehension, acquisition, reading, and reasoning. Olson argues that in all these cases the conflicts are rooted in differing assumptions about the relation of meaning to language: whether meaning is extrinsic to language—a relation Olson designates as "utterance"—or intrinsic— a relation he calls "text." On both the individual and cultural levels there has been development, Olson suggests, from language as utterance to language as text. He traces the history and impact of conventionalized, explicit language from the invention of the Greek alphabet through the rise of the British essayist technique. Olson concludes with a discussion of the resulting conception of language and the implications for the linguistic, psychological, and logical issues raised initially.

A clause-relational approach to English texts: A study of some predictive lexical items in written discourse

Abstract: This paper re-examines the linguistic basis for the distinction between two kinds of word: open-system words and closed-system words. Specifically, it looks at a class of traditionally open-system words — lexical items like nouns, verbs and adjectives — and suggests that they can function as exponents of a clause relation, and as such can have a predictive effect on the organisation of written discourse. This class of words is contrasted with two other, established, means of text organisation, the subordinators and the sentence connectors. Four criteria are presented to support the delimitation of this class. Finally, the implications of this class of words are considered for a linguistic theory of reference.

Learning about Psycholinguistic Processes by Analyzing Oral Reading.

Abstract: Kenneth and Yetta Goodman argue that reading, like speaking and writing, is an active language process in which readers display their sophistication as functional psycholinguists. The authors note, however, that it is difficult to gain access to and understand these active, underlying processes. To make such processes accessible, the authors advocate the use of oral reading as a data base. The Goodmans maintain that when oral readers depart from the written text—when miscues occur— the underlying processes of reading begin to be revealed. Using examples from children and adults, the authors present a typology of miscues and demonstrate how miscues provide a window on reading and other language processes. Throughout the article the Goodmans note the implications of miscue analysis for research and teaching.

Apparatus for assisting in the transposition of foreign language text

Abstract: A device is provided for printing a verbal composition in a text form transposed by an operator from the language form in which the source material is presented. Language character forms from different written language formats are encoded and maintained in electronic storage. An operator of the device selects a particular language character from a desired language character font in a single or multiple step selection process to appear at sequential locations of the text during composition of the text. The material to be transposed may be originally presented orally or visually, and is translated or transposed into a different language, or, in the case of some languages, particularly oriental languages, the text may be composed of different language character forms of the same spoken language. For language character forms that utilize a great multiplicity of characters, as opposed to language forms utilizing a relatively few alphabetic or pneumonic characters, a second order selection is made. In this utilization a character or character combination from the simpler language is first selected. All characters of the more complex language form corresponding to the simple character selected are then displayed. The operator then selects from the among the complex characters for inclusion in the text.

Making Sense of Reading--And of Reading Instruction.

Abstract: For many years researchers and educators have sought to specify the prerequisites for learning to read Physical, intellectual, and perceptual factors are often cited as the necessary precursors Frank Smith has often argued that reading is not a matter of decoding but consists of bringing meaning to print In this essay Smith claims that the essential antecedents of reading consist of two cognitive insights: that written language is meaningful and that written language is different from spoken language Smith discusses the importance of each of these insights and explains how children typically learn them He argues that current instructional practices may thwart the learning of these insights and suggests ways in which parents and teachers may help children to understand that reading makes sense

Morphological Ability in Normal and Dyslexic Children

Abstract: Two tests of morphological ability, the Berry-Talbott Test (Berry & Talbott. 1966) and the Grammatic Closure Test of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (Kirk, McCarthy, & Kirk 1968), were administered to 20 good readers and 20 dyslexics. The results indicated that the dyslexics were inferior to the good readers on both measures, and that on the Berry-Talbott Test, the complex items accounted for most of the difference between the sample groups. These two measures might be useful in identifying children experiencing difficulty in generating and mastering morphological rules. In addition, an item analysis may provide valuable information for the language therapist. Teachers of reading should also be alert to the possibility that poor readers may be deficient in morphological ability which, in turn, may result in an inefficient use of semantic and syntactic clues provided in the morphology of written language. Through oral language instruction, such children may be helped to internalize complex ...

Communication training in mute autistic adolescents using the written word

Abstract: The expressive and receptive use of three written words was taught to three mute autistic adolescents using a procedure based on Terrace's errorless discrimination model and Premack's language training with chimps. Expressive language was measured by the subject's selection of the appropriate word card from among the available alternatives when the corresponding object was presented. Receptive language was measured by the subject's selection of the appropriate object from among the available alternatives when the corresponding word card was presented. The sequence of the presentations and the order of placement of the available alternatives were randomized. The three subjects required 979, 1,791, and 1,644 trials, respectively, to master both the expressive and receptive use of the three words. The correct response rates for the three subjects over the entire training program were 92, 92, and 90%, respectively. It was concluded that, as concrete visual symbols, written words may provide a viable communication system for the mute autistic. The implications for treatment are discussed and suggestions for future research are made.

The beginnings of literacy

Abstract: Moira McKenzie Centre for Language in Primary Education Teddington, England It is a salutary thought that, in general, the children who are least successful in school, in terms of becoming literate, are those who are most dependent on what the school offers in the way of instruction. Those who profit most seem to be those who have most going for them at home. They are taken out, and talked with, have stories read to them, own and share books as a pleasurable experience; they observe their parents read, and perhaps write and receive letters. Such background experiences nurture children's general knowledge as well as their understanding of books and written language. They appear to be the right contextual support for successful ventures into reading and writing and provide a foundation and a springboard for further learning. Yet outside pressures to do a better job for all children prompt teachers to undervalue these pre-requisites for reading and plunge into very highly structured pre-reading and reading programs which young children find difficult to make any sense of at all (NCTE, 1977). Such programs have little meaning for those children least experienced in literacy or the culture of the school. Even for more experienced children they have the effect of diverting attention away from, rather than directing it towards, the characteristics of written communication (Clark, 1976). For all children, an over-concern with teaching segments of language (sounds, letter-names) risks giving them a very narrow and restricted idea of what literacy is, and what it means to be literate. The mistaken notion is that one learns to read through knowing particular skills, not that the skills are learned through reading. (F. Smith 1975) The main issue in teaching reading today continues to be the same that has occupied the attention of educators and parents for more than a century: should children be taught to read from the wholeness of the task, or should they be taught decoding skills, essential sounds and letters first, leading to comprehension later? Today, new developments in theory and research in both linguistics and the reading process bring different perspectives to the debate. We know a great deal more now about how children learn

Language Development through the School Years: Learning to Confine Interpretation to the Information in the Text.

Abstract: ABS:RACT The properties of written, textual language with which children deal in school cam be distinguished from those of oral language by examining the manner in which interpersonal and logical functions are stressed and by assessing the degree to which interpretation is confined by meaning explicitly stated in textual matter. The developmental process whereby children acquire the skills necessary to understand written language occurs primarily during the school years and can tentatively be attributed to schooling itself. A review of taecry and research in the area of language development suggests, then that the ability to confine interpretation to inforaation explicitly stated in texts and to derive logical conclusions from written materials is related largely to the developaent of literacy. (KS)

Symposium: reading abilities and disabilities

Abstract: Summary. Sentences taken from a particular first ‘reader’ in a well-known school reading scheme, together with variants of these sentences, were read by a sample of 5-year-old children whose reading skills enabled them to attempt the task. Twenty-four children, 12 of each sex, were selected from each of two very different schools using the reading scheme. The results of planned comparisons between error scores in different forms of the sentences, together with analysis of types of error showed a strong tendency to revert to familiar sentences in the face of novel versions. There were also signs of early steps in perceiving the letter/word coding of written language. Knowledge of spoken language and of the elements of a phonic approach seemed of little relevance at this very early stage of reading. Reading strategies suggested by this study have already been reported with limited samples of children and learning contexts, and this study tends to show their relative independence of both materials and methods of teaching. Implications for an understanding of early reading and for approaches to instruction are discussed.

On Developmental Relations between Language-Learning and Reading

Abstract: ness, and in the special skills of visual discrimination required by reading. We might say that oral language is to reading as walking is to swimming. Whatever the differences, oral language and thought support reading proficiency, serving as background. If the child's oral language/thought differs from the printed message, the effect is inhibiting. Teachers who are aware of these contrasts in conciseness, abstractness, and redundancy can help make reading easier for children. 6. Social interaction Consider social interaction. Language development is supported by social interaction: reading instruction often leaves little room for dialoguing as a natural accompaniment to the child's learning. Consider some positive examples of social interaction. There is interaction when pairs of children dictate, write, and read, and when children use group procedures with literature (12: 198, 201, 204, 212, 220; 13). The activity called "Three in a Tub" encourages social feeling while learning. For this activity one teacher painted an old bathtub orange, tossed in some cushions, and decla ed it a reading center. Users had to abide by t ree rules: only three in the tub; keep reading; no splashing. 7. Correction of "errors" The next comparison between language acquisition and beginning reading deals with the instructor's correction of errors (or miscues) during learning. Correcting, controlling, and forcing the child to imitate and repeat apparently have not helped much in promoting early language development (14), but similar techniques seem to be typical in reading instruction. A tea her in a reading circle may say to a child, "No, the book says 'toward,' not 'to.' Read it again." Some errors a child makes stem from the rules or generalizations about language that he or she is exploring at a particular time. ("Yesterday I cutted my finger.") Errors of this kind do not mean that the child lacks basic, developing competence. When errors do not hinder comprehension, the miscues in reading deserve the same attention they usually get in conversational speech-no attention at all. Some teachers tend to jump on minor problems (or "non-problem problems"), failing to see the child's overall comprehension of the printed message. Fluent reading requires a willingness to risk mistakes or miscues. If the errors a child makes do interfere with comprehension, the way the teacher offers assistance-the emotional overtone-is crucial to the teacher-pupil relationship. A teacher who is knowledgeable about the development of language and thought in children and is not uptight about error can make learning to read easier for children. Consider especially children from linguistically different groups. These children may learn that to follow the rule "Be right as often as possible; be wrong as seldom as possible" means to be silent. It is This content downloaded from 157.55.39.139 on Sat, 26 Nov 2016 04:14:01 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 196 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL hard to imagine learning a foreign language without making some mistakes. If learners of a foreign language are afraid to open their mouths they are not likely to learn. A language learner does not have to be right all the time in order to learn. Children who are linguistically different translate written language into their own dialect as they read. Minority children may read "be goin' disaway" for "going this way." Their translation shows a high level of comprehension. Some teachers do not recognize this achievement. The psychological laws of immediate, corrective feedback about rightness and wrongness, apparently so useful in shaping animal learning, are rarely if ever justifiable in language instruction. I do not mean that the teacher and the child never have a private conference to assess strengths and areas that need work. Some feedback to children about their hypotheses while reading helps them. Teachers need to give feedback when the child is ready for it and asks for it-not at all times. Some teachers evaluating tape recordings of a wide sampling of children reading orally count pauses, false starts, and stutterings as reading errors (15). This type of assessment is probably rooted in out-of-date teacher education. Some teachers need to value performance that is meaningful to the children and consistent with the author's basic (or deep structural) intent. Some of us need to take a fresh, developmental attitude toward reading

The Effect of Black English on the Reading Test Performance of High School Students

Abstract: This study was an attempt to measure the effect of black dialect on the reading test performance of black and white high school students. Forty-six low achieving ninth grade students were administered a standard English form and a black dialect form of the read ing subtest of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, Level II. The dialect form was written so that the written language of the test approximated the exact oral sentence pattern of the black students taking the test. Results showed that black students administered the dialect form did significantly better (.05) than black students administered the standard English form. White students did significantly better (.01) than black students on the standard English form of the test. All other differences were not significant.

Johann Baptist Schmidt. A pioneer in the history of aphasia.

Abstract: • Wernicke is usually credited with the first significant description of comprehension disorders in aphasia. Before Wernicke, however, others had reported patients with impaired comprehension. This communication deals with one of those pioneer papers, that written by Schmidt, an obstetrician, in 1871. It concerns a 25-year-old woman who developed sudden language difficulty ten days after delivery. She had trouble understanding oral or written language. Through careful examination, Schmidt showed that she was neither deaf nor psychotic. He concludes his paper with a prediction of the area of the brain he suspected to be involved. Schmidt's paper represents an early, noteworthy effort to clarify the relations between brain and behavior.

“Reading German”: A Self‐Tutorial Skills‐Learning Package1

Abstract: PEDAGOGICAL theory and practice in foreign languages have been for some time holistic in orientation, assuming that language is a phenomenon inseparable from the culture it carries, and that all aspects of language-use (command of phonological system, ability to comprehend spoken and written language, ability to produce comprehensible utterances in spoken and written form) are inseparably related to one another. The language-learning texts currently available, which largely determine teaching strategy, are almost all based on these assumptions. Language classes today are mostly, to use the jargon of the trade, "four-skills classes" with a cultural component. The theory may be correct,2 but its implementation causes problems for a small but important group of potential language-learners: those whose professional work demands that they acquire only a reading knowledge of the foreign language, usually as quickly as possible, and who have no interest in learning the speaking, writing, or oral comprehension skills. Such people are frustrated by "four-skills" classes, where the overall pace of learning is determined by the development of speaking skill, whose mastery comes slowest for most learners.