Several infectious agents are considered to be causes of cancer in humans. The fraction of the different types of cancer, and of all cancers worldwide and in different regions, has been estimated using several methods; primarily by reviewing the evidence for the strength of the association (relative risk) and the prevalence of infection in different world areas. The estimated total of infection-attributable cancer in the year 2002 is 1.9 million cases, or 17.8% of the global cancer burden. The principal agents are the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (5.5% of all cancer), the human papilloma viruses (5.2%), the hepatitis B and C viruses (4.9%), Epstein-Barr virus (1%), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) together with the human herpes virus 8 (0.9%). Relatively less important causes of cancer are the schistosomes (0.1%), human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (0.03%) and the liver flukes (0.02%). There would be 26.3% fewer cancers in developing countries (1.5 million cases per year) and 7.7% in developed countries (390,000 cases) if these infectious diseases were prevented. The attributable fraction at the specific sites varies from 100% of cervix cancers attributable to the papilloma viruses to a tiny proportion (0.4%) of liver cancers (worldwide) caused by liver flukes.

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The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002.

Cancer preventive properties of ginger: a brief review.

Zingiberis rhizoma: A comprehensive review on the ginger effect and efficacy profiles

"Surgical Pathology of the Head and Neck, Third Edition " is a complete stand-alone reference dealing with head and neck pathology. Providing an interdisciplinary approach to the diagnosis, treatment, and management of head and neck diseases, and covering all aspects of general pathology - this is the reference of choice for head and neck pathologists, head and neck surgeons and pathologists promoting clear communication between pathologists and surgeons. With over 1200 photographs, micrographs, drawings, and tables - over 200 more illustrations than the second edition - head and neck pathologists, head and neck surgeons, otolaryngologists and pathologists will find this updated bestseller a valid reference for any practice. Unparalleled in scope and content than any other book available on the subject, "Surgical Pathology of the Head and Neck, Third Edition" is a must-have resource for oral, surgical, and general pathologists; otolaryngologists; oral, maxillofacial, plastic, reconstructive, general, head, neck, and orthopedic surgeons; and neurosurgeons, oncologists, hematologists, ophthalmologists, radiologists, endocrinologists, dermatologists, dentists, and residents and fellows in these disciplines.

Surgical Pathology of the Head and Neck

Cancer remains a significant burden for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals. Most cancers that are associated with HIV infection are driven by oncogenic viruses, such as Epstein-Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human papillomavirus. Gaining insight into the epidemiology and mechanisms that underlie AIDS-related cancers has provided us with a better understanding of cancer immunity and viral oncogenesis.

AIDS-related malignancies.

Seroprevalence of HHV-8 has been studied in Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Trinidad, Jamaica and the USA, in both healthy individuals and those infected with HIV. Seroprevalence was found to be low in these countries in both the healthy and the HIV-infected populations. This correlates with the fact that hardly any AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma has been reported in these countries. In contrast, the African countries of Ghana, Uganda and Zambia showed high seroprevalences in both healthy and HIV-infected populations. This suggests that human herpes virus-8 (HHV-8) may be either a recently introduced virus or one that has extremely low infectivity. Nasopharyngeal and oral carcinoma patients from Malaysia, Hong Kong and Sri Lanka who have very high EBV titres show that only 3/82 (3.7%) have antibody to HHV-8, demonstrating that there is little, if any, cross-reactivity between antibodies to these two gamma viruses.

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Seroprevalence of human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) in countries of Southeast Asia compared to the USA, the Caribbean and Africa

Zingiberaceae rhizomes commonly used in the Malaysian traditional medicine were screened for anti-tumour promoter activity using the short-term assay of inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) in Raji cells The inhibition of TPA-induced EBV-EA was detected using the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and Western blot technique The indirect IFA detected the expression/inhibition of EBV-EA-D (diffused EA antigen), whereas the Western blot technique detected the expression/inhibition of both EBV-EA-D and EA-R (restricted EA antigen) Seven rhizomes were found to possess inhibitory activity towards EBV activation, induced by TPA; they are: Curcuma domestica, C xanthorrhiza, Kaempferia galanga, Zingiber cassumunar, Z officinale, Z officinale (red variety), and Z zerumbet A cytotoxicity assay was carried out to determine the toxicity of the Zingiberaceae rhizome extracts The rhizome extracts that exhibited EBV activation inhibitory activity had no cytotoxicity effect in Raji cells Therefore, the present study shows that several Zingiberaceae species used in Malaysian traditional medicine contain naturally occurring non-toxic compounds that inhibit the EBV activation, which, if further investigated, could contribute in the development of cancer prevention methods at the tumour-promoting stage

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Anti-tumour promoter activity in Malaysian ginger rhizobia used in traditional medicine.

Herbal medication has been practised by the rural Malaysian Malays for a long time. However, the long-term side-effects have never been studied. In the present study, 48 species of Euphorbiaceae were screened for tumour-promoter activity by means of an in vitro assay using a human lymphoblastoid cell line harbouring the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome. Twenty-seven per cent (13 out of 48) of the species tested were found to be positive, and in four species, namely Breynia coronata Hk.f, Codiaeum variegatum (L) Bl, Euphorbia atoto and Exocoecaria agallocha, EBV-inducing activity was observed when the plant extracts were tested at low concentrations of between 0.2 and 1.2 micrograms ml-1 in cell culture. This observation warrants attention from the regular users of these plants because regular use of plants with tumour-promoting activity could well be an aetiological factor for the promotion of tumours among rural Malaysian Malays.

A. W. Norhanom

Papers

Seroprevalence of human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) in countries of Southeast Asia compared to the USA, the Caribbean and Africa

Anti-tumour promoter activity in Malaysian ginger rhizobia used in traditional medicine.

Tumour promoter activity in Malaysian Euphorbiaceae

Human herpesvirus-8 (hhv-8) comparative sero-prevalence in u.s.a., india, thailand, malaysia, and its association with malignancies.