다중혈관 관상동맥 환자에서 y-문합을 이용하여 양쪽 내흉동맥만을 사용한 우회술의 조기 성적

The ITER Physics Basis presents and evaluates the physics rules and methodologies for plasma performance projections, which provide the basis for the design of a tokamak burning plasma device whose goal is to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy for peaceful purposes. This Chapter summarizes the physics basis for burning plasma projections, which is developed in detail by the ITER Physics Expert Groups in subsequent chapters. To set context, the design guidelines and requirements established in the report of ITER Special Working Group 1 are presented, as are the specifics of the tokamak design developed in the Final Design Report of the ITER Engineering Design Activities, which exemplifies burning tokamak plasma experiments. The behaviour of a tokamak plasma is determined by the interaction of many diverse physics processes, all of which bear on projections for both a burning plasma experiment and an eventual tokamak reactor. Key processes summarized here are energy and particle confinement and the H-mode power threshold; MHD stability, including pressure and density limits, neoclassical islands, error fields, disruptions, sawteeth, and ELMs; power and particle exhaust, involving divertor power dispersal, helium exhaust, fuelling and density control, H-mode edge transition region, erosion of plasma facing components, tritium retention; energetic particle physics; auxiliary power physics; and the physics of plasma diagnostics. Summaries of projection methodologies, together with estimates of their attendant uncertainties, are presented in each of these areas. Since each physics element has its own scaling properties, an integrated experimental demonstration of the balance between the combined processes which obtains in a reactor plasma is inaccessible to contemporary experimental facilities: it requires a reactor scale device. It is argued, moreover, that a burning plasma experiment can be sufficiently flexible to permit operation in a steady state mode, with non-inductive plasma current drive, as well as in a pulsed mode where current is inductively driven. Overall, the ITER Physics Basis can support a range of candidate designs for a tokamak burning plasma facility. For each design, there will remain a significant uncertainty in the projected performance, but the projection methodologies outlined here do suffice to specify the major parameters of such a facility and form the basis for assuring that its phased operation will return sufficient information to design a prototype commercial fusion power reactor, thus fulfilling the goal of the ITER project.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0029-5515/39/12/301/pdf

Chapter 1: Overview and summary

Nonlinear gyrokinetic equations play a fundamental role in our understanding of the long-time behavior of strongly magnetized plasmas. The foundations of modern nonlinear gyrokinetic the- ory are based on three important pillars: (1) a gyrokinetic Vlasov equation written in terms of a gyrocenter Hamiltonian with quadratic low-frequency ponderomotive-like terms; (2) a set of gyrokinetic Maxwell (Poisson-Ampere) equations written in terms of the gyrocenter Vlasov dis- tribution that contain low-frequency polarization (Poisson) and magnetization (Ampere) terms derived from the quadratic nonlinearities in the gyrocenter Hamiltonian; and (3) an exact energy conservationlaw for the gyrokineticVlasov-Maxwell equations that includes all the relevant linear and nonlinear coupling terms. The foundations of nonlinear gyrokinetic theory are reviewed with an emphasis on the rigorous applications of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Lie-transform perturba- tion methods used in the variationalderivationof nonlineargyrokineticVlasov-Maxwell equations. The physical motivations and applications of the nonlinear gyrokinetic equations, which describe the turbulent evolution of low-frequency electromagnetic fluctuations in a nonuniform magnetized plasmas with arbitrary magnetic geometry, are also discussed.

/pdf/foundations-of-nonlinear-gyrokinetic-theory-3l78lnlpai.pdf

Foundations of nonlinear gyrokinetic theory

http://www.xsciforge.com/about/articles/nubeam.pdf

The tokamak Monte Carlo fast ion module NUBEAM in the National Transport Code Collaboration library

Low-temperature plasma physics and technology are diverse and interdisciplinary fields. The plasma parameters can span many orders of magnitude and applications are found in quite different areas of daily life and industrial production. As a consequence, the trends in research, science and technology are difficult to follow and it is not easy to identify the major challenges of the field and their many sub-fields. Even for experts the road to the future is sometimes lost in the mist. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics is addressing this need for clarity and thus providing guidance to the field by this special Review article, The 2012 Plasma Roadmap.

/pdf/the-2012-plasma-roadmap-3pk2a2bghd.pdf

The 2012 Plasma Roadmap

Experiments designed for generating internal transport barriers in the plasmas of the Joint European Torus [JET, P. H. Rebut et al., Proceedings of the 10th International Conference, Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion, London (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1985), Vol. I, p. 11] reveal cascades of Alfven perturbations with predominantly upward frequency sweeping. These experiments are characterized by a hollow plasma current profile, created by lower hybrid heating and current drive before the main heating power phase. The cascades are driven by ions accelerated with ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH). Each cascade consists of many modes with different toroidal mode numbers and different frequencies. The toroidal mode numbers vary from n=1 to n=6. The frequency starts from 20 to 90 kHz and increases up to the frequency range of toroidal Alfven eigenmodes. In the framework of ideal magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) model, a close correlation is found between the time evolution of the Alfven cascades and the evolution of the Alfven continuum frequency at the point of zero magnetic shear. This correlation facilitates the study of the time evolution of both the Alfven continuum and the safety factor, q(r), at the point of zero magnetic shear and makes it possible to use Alfven spectroscopy for studying q(r). Modeling shows that the Alfven cascade occurs when the Alfven continuum frequency has a maximum at the zero shear point. Interpretation of the Alfven cascades is given in terms of a novel-type of energetic particle mode localized at the point where q(r) has a minimum. This interpretation explains the key experimental observations: simultaneous generation of many modes, preferred direction of frequency sweeping, and the absence of strong continuum damping.

Alfvén wave cascades in a tokamak

Some plasma propulsion concepts rely on a strong magnetic field to guide the plasma flow through the thruster nozzle. The question then arises of how the magnetically confined plasma can detach from the spacecraft. This work presents a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) detachment scenario in which the plasma flow stretches the magnetic field lines to infinity. Detachment takes place after the energy density of the expanding magnetic field drops below the kinetic energy density of the plasma. As plasma flows along the magnetic field lines, the originally sub-Alfvenic flow becomes super-Alfvenic; this transition is similar to what occurs in the solar wind. In order to describe the detachment quantitatively, the ideal MHD equations have been solved for a cold plasma flow in a slowly diverging nozzle. The solution exhibits a well-behaved transition from sub- to super-Alfvenic flow inside the nozzle and a rarefaction wave at the edge of the outgoing flow. It is shown that efficient detachment is feasible if the nozzle is sufficiently long.

Magnetohydrodynamic scenario of plasma detachment in a magnetic nozzle

/pdf/physics-of-runaway-electrons-in-tokamaks-53zgw20f64.pdf

Physics of runaway electrons in tokamaks

Tokamak plasmas with reversed magnetic shear are prone to the excitation of Alfven cascade (AC) eigenmodes by energetic particles. These modes exhibit a quasiperiodic pattern of predominantly upward frequency sweeping. Observations also reveal that the AC spectral lines sometimes bend at low frequencies, which is a significant deviation from the shear Alfven wave dispersion relation. This paper shows that the underlying reasons for such bending are the finite pressure of the plasma and the geodesic curvature that precludes shear Alfven perturbations from being strictly incompressible. In addition to the geodesic effect, there are two other pressure effects on shear Alfven waves, which are the convection in the presence of an equilibrium pressure gradient and the toroidicity-induced coupling between shear Alfven waves and acoustic modes. An analytical treatment of the problem enables a parametric comparison of all three mechanisms. The key distinction between the geodesic compressibility and the acoustic coupling is that geodesic compression occurs without plasma displacement along the magnetic-field lines. As a result, the mode phase velocity is greater than the ion thermal velocity even in an isothermal plasma, which allows the mode to avoid a strong ion Landau damping. Plasma temperature diagnostics via magnetohydrodynamic spectroscopy employing the low-frequency part of the ACs is suggested.

Plasma pressure effect on Alfvén cascade eigenmodes

A universal integral equation has been derived and solved for the nonlinear evolution of collective modes driven by kinetic wave particle resonances just above the threshold for instability. The dominant nonlinearity stems from the dynamics of resonant particles that can be treated perturbatively near the marginal state of the system. With a resonant particle source and classical relaxation processes included, the new equation allows the determination of conditions for a soft nonlinear regime, where the saturation level is proportional to the increment above threshold, or a hard nonlinear regime, characterized by explosive behavior, where the saturation level is independent of the closeness to threshold. In the hard regime, rapid oscillations typically arise that lead to large frequency shifts in a fully developed nonlinear stage. The universality of the approach suggests that the theory applies to many types of resonant particle driven instabilities, and several specific cases, viz. energetic particle driven Alfven wave excitation, the fishbone oscillation, and a collective mode in particle accelerators, are discussed.

/pdf/critical-nonlinear-phenomena-for-kinetic-instabilities-near-51c0ym7rrt.pdf

Boris Breizman

Papers

Alfvén wave cascades in a tokamak

Magnetohydrodynamic scenario of plasma detachment in a magnetic nozzle

Physics of runaway electrons in tokamaks

Plasma pressure effect on Alfvén cascade eigenmodes

Critical nonlinear phenomena for kinetic instabilities near threshold