As CMOS technology begins to face significant scaling challenges, considerable research efforts are being directed to investigate alternative device technologies that can serve as a replacement for CMOS. Spintronic devices, which utilize the spin of electrons as the state variable for computation, have recently emerged as one of the leading candidates for post-CMOS technology. Recent experiments have shown that a nano-magnet can be switched by a spin-polarized current and this has led to a number of novel device proposals over the past few years. In this paper, we provide a review of different mechanisms that manipulate the state of a nano-magnet using current-induced spin-transfer torque and demonstrate how such mechanisms have been engineered to develop device structures for energy-efficient on-chip memory and logic.

Spin-Transfer Torque Devices for Logic and Memory: Prospects and Perspectives

Physical unclonable functions (PUFs) are increasingly used for authentication and identification applications as well as the cryptographic key generation. An important feature of a PUF is the reliance on minute random variations in the fabricated hardware to derive a trusted random key. Currently, most PUF designs focus on exploiting process variations intrinsic to the CMOS technology. In recent years, progress in emerging nanoelectronic devices has demonstrated an increase in variation as a consequence of scaling down to the nanoregion. To date, emerging PUFs with nanotechnology have not been fully established, but they are expected to emerge. Initial research in this area aims to provide security primitives for emerging integrated circuits with nanotechnology. In this paper, we review emerging nanotechnology-based PUFs.

http://autoidlab.cs.adelaide.edu.au/sites/default/files/publications/papers/SurveyPUFs.pdf

Emerging Physical Unclonable Functions With Nanotechnology

Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs) are commonly used in cryptography to identify devices based on the uniqueness of their physical microstructures. DRAM-based PUFs have numerous advantages over PUF designs that exploit alternative substrates: DRAM is a major component of many modern systems, and a DRAM-based PUF can generate many unique identiers. However, none of the prior DRAM PUF proposals provide implementations suitable for runtime-accessible PUF evaluation on commodity DRAM devices. Prior DRAM PUFs exhibit unacceptably high latencies, especially at low temperatures (e.g., >125.8s on average for a 64KiB memory segment below 55C), and they cause high system interference by keeping part of DRAM unavailable during PUF evaluation. In this paper, we introduce the DRAM latency PUF, a new class of fast, reliable DRAM PUFs. The key idea is to reduce DRAM read access latency below the reliable datasheet specications using software-only system calls. Doing so results in error patterns that reect the compound eects of manufacturing variations in various DRAM structures (e.g., capacitors, wires, sense ampli- ers). Based on a rigorous experimental characterization of 223 modern LPDDR4 DRAM chips, we demonstrate that these error patterns 1) satisfy runtime-accessible PUF requirements, and 2) are quickly generated (i.e., at 88.2ms) irrespective of operating temperature using a real system with no additional hardware modications. We show that, for a constant DRAM capacity overhead of 64KiB, our implementation of the DRAM latency PUF enables an average (minimum, maximum) PUF evaluation time speedup of 152x (109x, 181x) at 70C and 1426x (868x, 1783x) at 55C when compared to a DRAM retention PUF and achieves greater speedups at even lower temperatures.

The DRAM Latency PUF: Quickly Evaluating Physical Unclonable Functions by Exploiting the Latency-Reliability Tradeoff in Modern Commodity DRAM Devices

A physically unclonable function (PUF) is an irreversible probabilistic function that produces a random bit string. It is simple to implement but hard to predict and emulate. PUFs have been widely proposed as security primitives to provide device identification and authentication. In this paper, we propose a novel dynamic-memory-based PUF [dynamic RAM PUF (DRAM PUF)] for the authentication of electronic hardware systems. The DRAM PUF relies on the fact that the capacitor in the DRAM initializes to random values at startup time. Most PUF designs require custom circuits to convert unique analog characteristics into digital bits, but using our method, no extra circuitry is required to achieve a reliable 128-bit PUF. The results show that the proposed DRAM PUF provides a large number of input patterns (challenges) compared with other memory-based PUF circuits such as static RAM PUFs. Our DRAM PUFs provide highly unique PUFs with a 0.4937 average interdie Hamming distance. We also propose an enrollment algorithm to achieve highly reliable results to generate PUF identifications for system-level security. This algorithm has been validated on real DRAMs with an experimental setup to test different operating conditions.

DRAM-Based Intrinsic Physically Unclonable Functions for System-Level Security and Authentication

This paper addresses the design of systolic array (SA) based convolutional neural network (CNN) accelerators for mobile and embedded domains. On- and off-chip memory accesses to the large activation inputs (sometimes called feature maps) of CNN layers contribute significantly to total energy consumption for such accelerators; while prior has proposed off-chip compression, activations are still stored on-chip in uncompressed form, requiring either large on-chip activation buffers or slow and energy-hungry off-chip accesses. In this paper, we propose CompAct, a new architecture that enables on-chip compression of activations for SA based CNN accelerators. CompAct is built around several key ideas. First, CompAct identifies an SA schedule that has nearly regular access patterns, enabling the use of a modified run-length coding scheme (RLC). Second, CompAct improves compression ratio of the RLC scheme using Sparse-RLC in later CNN layers and Lossy-RLC in earlier layers. Finally, CompAct proposes look-ahead snoozing that operates synergistically with RLC to reduce the leakage energy of activation buffers. Based on detailed synthesis results, we show that CompAct enables up to 62% reduction in activation buffer energy, and 34% reduction in total chip energy.

https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3358178

CompAct: On-chip Compression of Activations for Low Power Systolic Array Based CNN Acceleration

Domino logic designs for high-performance and leakage-tolerant applications

Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs) are emerging cryptographic primitives used to implement low-cost device authentication and secure secret key generation. Weak PUFs (i.e., devices able to generate a single signature or to deal with a limited number of challenges) are widely discussed in literature. One of the most investigated solutions today is based on SRAMs. However, the rapid development of low-power, high-density, high-performance SoCs has pushed the embedded memories to their limits and opened the field to the development of emerging memory technologies. The Spin-Transfer-Torque Magnetic Random Access Memory (STT-MRAM) has emerged as a promising choice for embedded memories due to its reduced read/write latency and high CMOS integration capability. In this article, we propose an innovative PUF design based on STT-MRAM memory. We exploit the high variability affecting the electrical resistance of the Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MTJ) device in anti-parallel magnetization. We will demonstrate that the proposed solution is robust, unclonable, and unpredictable.

STT-MRAM-Based PUF Architecture Exploiting Magnetic Tunnel Junction Fabrication-Induced Variability

Due to the rapid development of hand-held electronic devices, the need for high density, low power, high performance SoCs has pushed the well-established embedded memory technologies to their limits. To overcome the existing memory issues, emerging memory technologies are being developed and implemented. The focus is placed on non-volatile technologies, which should meet the high demands of tomorrow applications. The nonvolatile memory technologies being intensively researched today are the Flash memories and the emerging resistive and magnetic type random access memories. This paper presents an overview of device level operation of these nonvolatile memories, with special emphasis on the fabrication-and aging-induced reliability issues.

Nonvolatile memories: Present and future challenges

Physical Unclonable Functions are emerging cryptographic primitives used to implement low-cost device authentication and secure secret key generation. In this paper we propose an innovative design based on STT-MRAM memory. We exploit the high variability affecting the electrical resistance of the MTJ device in anti-parallel magnetization. We will show that the proposed solution is robust, unclonable and unpredictable.

STT MRAM-Based PUFs

Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs) are emerging cryptographic primitives used to implement low-cost device authentication and secure secret key generation. Several solutions exists for classical CMOS devices, the most investigated solutions today for weak PUF implementation are based on the use of SRAMs which offer the advantage of reusing the memories that already exist in many designs. The high reliability of SRAM-PUFs achieved today by using Fuzzy extractor structures combined with complex error correcting codes (ECCs) which increase the complexity and cost of the design. In this paper we define an effective method to identify the unreliable cells in the PUF implementation based on SRAM stability test. This information is used to significantly reduce the need for complex ECCs resulting in efficient, low cost PUF implementations.

Elena I. Vatajelu

Papers

Domino logic designs for high-performance and leakage-tolerant applications

STT-MRAM-Based PUF Architecture Exploiting Magnetic Tunnel Junction Fabrication-Induced Variability

Nonvolatile memories: Present and future challenges

STT MRAM-Based PUFs

Towards a highly reliable SRAM-based PUFs