The site-selective formation of carbon-carbon bonds through direct functionalizations of otherwise unreactive carbon-hydrogen bonds constitutes an economically attractive strategy for an overall streamlining of sustainable syntheses. In recent decades, intensive research efforts have led to the development of various reaction conditions for challenging C-H bond functionalizations, among which transition-metal-catalyzed transformations arguably constitute thus far the most valuable tool. For instance, the use of inter alia palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, copper, or iron complexes set the stage for chemo-, site-, diastereo-, and/or enantioselective C-H bond functionalizations. Key to success was generally a detailed mechanistic understanding of the elementary C-H bond metalation step, which depending on the nature of the metal fragment can proceed via several distinct reaction pathways. Traditionally, three different modes of action were primarily considered for CH bond metalations, namely, (i) oxidative addition with electronrich late transition metals, (ii) σ-bond metathesis with early transition metals, and (iii) electrophilic activation with electrondeficient late transition metals (Scheme 1). However, more recent mechanistic studies indicated the existence of a continuum of electrophilic, ambiphilic, and nucleophilic interactions. Within this continuum, detailed experimental and computational analysis provided strong evidence for novel C-H bond metalationmechanisms relying on the assistance of a bifunctional ligand bearing an additional Lewis-basic heteroatom, such as that found in (heteroatom-substituted) secondary phosphine oxides or most prominently carboxylates (Scheme 1, iv). This novel insight into the nature of stoichiometric metalations has served as stimulus for the development of novel transformations based on cocatalytic amounts of carboxylates, which significantly broadened the scope of C-H bond functionalizations in recent years, with most remarkable progress being made in palladiumor ruthenium-catalyzed direct arylations and direct alkylations. These carboxylate-assisted C-H bond transformations were mostly proposed to proceed via a mechanism in which metalation takes place via a concerted base-assisted deprotonation. To mechanistically differentiate these intramolecular metalations new acronyms have recently been introduced into the literature, such as CMD (concerted metalationdeprotonation), IES (internal electrophilic substitution), or AMLA (ambiphilic metal ligand activation), which describe related mechanisms and will be used below where appropriate. This review summarizes the development and scope of carboxylates as cocatalysts in transition-metal-catalyzed C-H functionalizations until autumn 2010. Moreover, experimental and computational studies on stoichiometric metalation reactions being of relevance to the mechanism of these catalytic processes are discussed as well. Mechanistically related C-H bond cleavage reactions with ruthenium or iridium complexes bearing monodentate ligands are, however, only covered with respect to their working mode, and transformations with stoichiometric amounts of simple acetate bases are solely included when their mechanism was suggested to proceed by acetate-assisted metalation.

Carboxylate-assisted transition-metal-catalyzed C-H bond functionalizations: mechanism and scope.

N-Heterocyclic Carbenes in Late Transition Metal Catalysis

The area of transition-metal-catalyzed direct arylation through cleavage of CH bonds has undergone rapid development in recent years, and is becoming an increasingly viable alternative to traditional cross-coupling reactions with organometallic reagents In particular, palladium and ruthenium catalysts have been described that enable the direct arylation of (hetero)arenes with challenging coupling partners—including electrophilic aryl chlorides and tosylates as well as simple arenes in cross-dehydrogenative arylations Furthermore, less expensive copper, iron, and nickel complexes were recently shown to be effective for economically attractive direct arylations

Transition-metal-catalyzed direct arylation of (hetero)arenes by C-H bond cleavage.

4.2.8. Reductive Coupling 3109 5. Reaction of Aromatic Compounds 3110 5.1. Electrophilic Substitutions 3110 5.2. Radical Substitution 3111 5.3. Oxidative Coupling 3111 5.4. Photochemical Reactions 3111 6. Reaction of Carbonyl Compounds 3111 6.1. Nucleophilic Additions 3111 6.1.1. Allylation 3111 6.1.2. Propargylation 3120 6.1.3. Benzylation 3121 6.1.4. Arylation/Vinylation 3121 6.1.5. Alkynylation 3121 6.1.6. Alkylation 3121 6.1.7. Reformatsky-Type Reaction 3122 6.1.8. Direct Aldol Reaction 3122 6.1.9. Mukaiyama Aldol Reaction 3124 6.1.10. Hydrogen Cyanide Addition 3125 6.2. Pinacol Coupling 3126 6.3. Wittig Reactions 3126 7. Reaction of R,â-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds 3127

Organic Reactions in Aqueous Media with a Focus on Carbon−Carbon Bond Formations: A Decade Update

The transition-metal-catalyzed functionalization of C-H bonds is a powerful method for generating carbon-carbon bonds. Although significant advances to this field have been reported during the past decade, many challenges remain. First, most of the methods are substrate-specific and thus cannot be generalized. Second, conversions of unactivated (i.e., not benzylic or alpha to heteroatom) sp(3) C-H bonds to C-C bonds are rare, with most examples limited to t-butyl groups, a conversion that is inherently simple because there are no beta-hydrogens that can be eliminated. Finally, the palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium catalysts routinely used for the conversion of C-H bonds to C-C bonds are expensive. Catalytically active metals that are cheaper and less exotic (e.g., copper, iron, and manganese) are rarely used. This Account describes our attempts to provide solutions to these three problems. We have developed a general method for directing-group-containing arene arylation by aryl iodides. Using palladium acetate as the catalyst, we arylated anilides, benzamides, benzoic acids, benzylamines, and 2-substituted pyridine derivatives under nearly identical conditions. We have also developed a method for the palladium-catalyzed auxiliary-assisted arylation of unactivated sp(3) C-H bonds. This procedure allows for the beta-arylation of carboxylic acid derivatives and the gamma-arylation of amine derivatives. Furthermore, copper catalysis can be used to mediate the arylation of acidic arene C-H bonds (i.e., those with pK(a) values <35 in DMSO). Using a copper iodide catalyst in combination with a base and a phenanthroline ligand, we successfully arylated electron-rich and electron-deficient heterocycles and electron-poor arenes possessing at least two electron-withdrawing groups. The reaction exhibits unusual regioselectivity: arylation occurs at the most hindered position. This copper-catalyzed method supplements the well-known C-H activation/borylation methodology, in which functionalization usually occurs at the least hindered position. We also describe preliminary investigations to determine the mechanisms of these transformations. We anticipate that other transition metals, including iron, nickel, cobalt, and silver, will also be able to facilitate deprotonation/arylation reaction sequences.

/pdf/palladium-and-copper-catalyzed-arylation-of-carbon-hydrogen-53ohvhqdgn.pdf

Palladium- and Copper-Catalyzed Arylation of Carbon-Hydrogen Bonds

A cobalt complex, CoCl2[1,6-bis(diphenylphosphino)hexane], catalyzes an alkylation reaction of styrenes in the presence of Me3SiCH2MgCl in ether to yield β-alkylstyrenes. A variety of alkyl halides including alkyl chlorides can be employed as an alkyl source. A radical mechanism is strongly suggested for this alkylation reaction.

Cobalt-catalyzed Heck-type reaction of alkyl halides with styrenes.

Nickel-catalyzed carboxylation of organozinc reagents with CO2.

Triethylborane-induced atom-transfer radical cyclization of iodo acetals and iodoacetates in water is described. Radical cyclization of iodo acetal proceeded smoothly both in aqueous methanol and in water. Atom-transfer radical cyclization of allyl iodoacetate (3a) is much more efficient in water than in benzene or hexane. For instance, treatment of 3a with triethylborane in benzene or hexane at room temperature did not yield the desired lactone. In contrast, 3a cyclized much more smoothly in water and yielded the corresponding γ-lactone in high yield. The remarkable solvent effect of water was observed in this reaction, although the medium effect is believed to be small in radical reactions. Powerful solvent effects also operate in the preparation of medium- and large-ring lactones. Water as a reaction solvent strikingly promoted the cyclization reaction of large-membered rings. Stirring a solution of 3,6-dioxa-8-nonenyl iodoacetate in water in the presence of triethylborane at 25 °C for 10 h provided a ...

Powerful solvent effect of water in radical reaction: Triethylborane-induced atom-transfer radical cyclization in water

A cobalt complex, [CoCl2(dpph)] (DPPH = [1,6-bis(diphenylphosphino)hexane]), catalyzes an intermolecular styrylation reaction of alkyl halides in the presence of Me3SiCH2MgCl in ether to yield β-alkylstyrenes. A variety of alkyl halides including alkyl chlorides can participate in the styrylation. A radical mechanism is strongly suggested for the styrylation reaction. The sequential isomerization/styrylation reactions of cyclopropylmethyl bromide and 6-bromo-1-hexene provide evidence of the radical mechanism. Crystallographic and spectroscopic investigations on cobalt complexes reveal that the reaction would begin with single electron transfer from an electron-rich (diphosphine)bis(trimethylsilylmethyl)cobalt(II) complex followed by reductive elimination to yield 1,2-bis(trimethylsilyl)ethane and a (diphosphine)cobalt(I) complex. The combination of [CoCl2(dppb)] (DPPB = [1,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)butane]) catalyst and Me3SiCH2MgCl induces intramolecular Heck-type cyclization reactions of 6-halo-1-hexenes ...

Hideki Yorimitsu

Papers

Cobalt-catalyzed Heck-type reaction of alkyl halides with styrenes.

Nickel-catalyzed carboxylation of organozinc reagents with CO2.

Powerful solvent effect of water in radical reaction: Triethylborane-induced atom-transfer radical cyclization in water

Cobalt-Catalyzed Trimethylsilylmethylmagnesium-Promoted Radical Alkenylation of Alkyl Halides: A Complement to the Heck Reaction

Cobalt‐Catalyzed Coupling Reaction of Alkyl Halides with Allylic Grignard Reagents