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The unprecedented ability of nanometallic (that is, plasmonic) structures to concentrate light into deep-subwavelength volumes has propelled their use in a vast array of nanophotonics technologies and research endeavours. Plasmonic light concentrators can elegantly interface diffraction-limited dielectric optical components with nanophotonic structures. Passive and active plasmonic devices provide new pathways to generate, guide, modulate and detect light with structures that are similar in size to state-of-the-art electronic devices. With the ability to produce highly confined optical fields, the conventional rules for light-matter interactions need to be re-examined, and researchers are venturing into new regimes of optical physics. In this review we will discuss the basic concepts behind plasmonics-enabled light concentration and manipulation, make an attempt to capture the wide range of activities and excitement in this area, and speculate on possible future directions.

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Plasmonics for extreme light concentration and manipulation.

Optical technology is poised to revolutionize short-reach interconnects. The leading candidate technology is silicon photonics, and the workhorse of such an interconnect is the optical modulator. Modulators have been improved dramatically in recent years, with a notable increase in bandwidth from the megahertz to the multigigahertz regime in just over half a decade. However, the demands of optical interconnects are significant, and many questions remain unanswered as to whether silicon can meet the required performance metrics. Minimizing metrics such as the device footprint and energy requirement per bit, while also maximizing bandwidth and modulation depth, is non-trivial. All of this must be achieved within an acceptable thermal tolerance and optical spectral width using CMOS-compatible fabrication processes. This Review discusses the techniques that have been (and will continue to be) used to implement silicon optical modulators, as well as providing an outlook for these devices and the candidate solutions of the future.

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Silicon optical modulators

An overview is presented of the current state-of-the-art in silicon nanophotonic ring resonators. Basic theory of ring resonators is discussed, and applied to the peculiarities of submicron silicon photonic wire waveguides: the small dimensions and tight bend radii, sensitivity to perturbations and the boundary conditions of the fabrication processes. Theory is compared to quantitative measurements. Finally, several of the more promising applications of silicon ring resonators are discussed: filters and optical delay lines, label-free biosensors, and active rings for efficient modulators and even light sources.

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Silicon microring resonators

Artificial Neural Networks have dramatically improved performance for many machine learning tasks. We demonstrate a new architecture for a fully optical neural network that enables a computational speed enhancement of at least two orders of magnitude and three orders of magnitude in power efficiency over state-of-the-art electronics.

Deep learning with coherent nanophotonic circuits

Polysilicon waveguides are fabricated in a 300 mm wafer process representative of a complete high-volume electronic memory process. 6.2 dB/cm end-of-line loss is measured for narrow waveguides with a confinement factor scaling of 5.1 cm−1.

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Low-loss polysilicon waveguides suitable for integration within a high-volume electronics process

A quantum bit (qubit) flip chip assembly may be formed when a qubit it formed on a first chip and an optically transmissive path is formed on a second chip. The two chips may be bonded using solder bumps. The optically transmissive path may provide optical access to the qubit on the first chip.

Flip chip integration on qubit chips

Silicon is considered a promising platform for photonic integrated circuits as they can be fabricated in state-of-the-art
electronics foundaries with integrated CMOS electronics. While much of the existing work on CMOS photonics has
used directional couplers for power splitting, multimode interference (MMI) devices may have relaxed fabrication
requirements and smaller footprints, potentially energy efficient designs. They have already been used as 1x2 splitters,
2x1 combiners in Quadrature Phase Shift Keying modulators, and 3-dB couplers among others. In this work, 3-dB,
butterfly and cross MMI couplers are realized on bulk CMOS technology. Footprints from around 40um 2 to 200 um 2 are obtained. MMI tolerances to manufacturing process and bandwidth are analyzed and tested showing the robustness of the MMI devices.

Tolerance analysis for efficient MMI devices in silicon photonics

We present a photonic chip sensor platform for near-infrared laser absorption spectroscopy, which incorporates an uncooled III-V laser and detector, on-chip methane reference cell, and 30cm-long evanescent field waveguides, integrated on a silicon photonics substrate.

Silicon Photonic Gas Sensing

A qubit may be formed by forming a Josephson junction between two capacitive plates. The Josephson junction may be annealed with a thermal source. The thermal source may be a laser that generates a Gaussian beam. An axicon lens may be exposed to the Gaussian beam. Annealing the Josephson junction may alter the resistance of the Josephson junction.

Jason S. Orcutt

Papers

Low-loss polysilicon waveguides suitable for integration within a high-volume electronics process

Flip chip integration on qubit chips

Tolerance analysis for efficient MMI devices in silicon photonics

Silicon Photonic Gas Sensing

Laser annealing of qubits with structured illumination