Graphene, the single-atom-thick form of carbon, holds promise for many applications, notably in electronics where it can complement or be integrated with silicon-based devices. Intense efforts have been devoted to develop a key enabling device, a broadband, fast optical modulator with a small device footprint. Now Liu et al. demonstrate an exciting new possibility for graphene in the area of on-chip optical communication: a graphene-based optical modulator integrated with a silicon chip. This new device relies on the electrical tuning of the Fermi level of the graphene sheet, and achieves modulation of guided light at frequencies over 1 gigahertz, together with a broad operating spectrum. At just 25 square micrometres in area, it is one of the smallest of its type. Integrated optical modulators with high modulation speed, small footprint and large optical bandwidth are poised to be the enabling devices for on-chip optical interconnects1,2. Semiconductor modulators have therefore been heavily researched over the past few years. However, the device footprint of silicon-based modulators is of the order of millimetres, owing to its weak electro-optical properties3. Germanium and compound semiconductors, on the other hand, face the major challenge of integration with existing silicon electronics and photonics platforms4,5,6. Integrating silicon modulators with high-quality-factor optical resonators increases the modulation strength, but these devices suffer from intrinsic narrow bandwidth and require sophisticated optical design; they also have stringent fabrication requirements and limited temperature tolerances7. Finding a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible material with adequate modulation speed and strength has therefore become a task of not only scientific interest, but also industrial importance. Here we experimentally demonstrate a broadband, high-speed, waveguide-integrated electroabsorption modulator based on monolayer graphene. By electrically tuning the Fermi level of the graphene sheet, we demonstrate modulation of the guided light at frequencies over 1 GHz, together with a broad operation spectrum that ranges from 1.35 to 1.6 µm under ambient conditions. The high modulation efficiency of graphene results in an active device area of merely 25 µm2, which is among the smallest to date. This graphene-based optical modulation mechanism, with combined advantages of compact footprint, low operation voltage and ultrafast modulation speed across a broad range of wavelengths, can enable novel architectures for on-chip optical communications.

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A graphene-based broadband optical modulator

Graphene and other two-dimensional materials, such as transition metal dichalcogenides, have rapidly established themselves as intriguing building blocks for optoelectronic applications, with a strong focus on various photodetection platforms The versatility of these material systems enables their application in areas including ultrafast and ultrasensitive detection of light in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared and terahertz frequency ranges These detectors can be integrated with other photonic components based on the same material, as well as with silicon photonic and electronic technologies Here, we provide an overview and evaluation of state-of-the-art photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials, and hybrid systems based on the combination of different two-dimensional crystals or of two-dimensional crystals and other (nano)materials, such as plasmonic nanoparticles, semiconductors, quantum dots, or their integration with (silicon) waveguides

http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/nms/publications/pdf/nnano.2014.215.pdf

Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems

National Institute of Standards and Technology における超伝導研究及び生活

Optical technology is poised to revolutionize short-reach interconnects. The leading candidate technology is silicon photonics, and the workhorse of such an interconnect is the optical modulator. Modulators have been improved dramatically in recent years, with a notable increase in bandwidth from the megahertz to the multigigahertz regime in just over half a decade. However, the demands of optical interconnects are significant, and many questions remain unanswered as to whether silicon can meet the required performance metrics. Minimizing metrics such as the device footprint and energy requirement per bit, while also maximizing bandwidth and modulation depth, is non-trivial. All of this must be achieved within an acceptable thermal tolerance and optical spectral width using CMOS-compatible fabrication processes. This Review discusses the techniques that have been (and will continue to be) used to implement silicon optical modulators, as well as providing an outlook for these devices and the candidate solutions of the future.

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Silicon optical modulators

We examine the current performance and future demands of interconnects to and on silicon chips. We compare electrical and optical interconnects and project the requirements for optoelectronic and optical devices if optics is to solve the major problems of interconnects for future high-performance silicon chips. Optics has potential benefits in interconnect density, energy, and timing. The necessity of low interconnect energy imposes low limits especially on the energy of the optical output devices, with a ~ 10 fJ/bit device energy target emerging. Some optical modulators and radical laser approaches may meet this requirement. Low (e.g., a few femtofarads or less) photodetector capacitance is important. Very compact wavelength splitters are essential for connecting the information to fibers. Dense waveguides are necessary on-chip or on boards for guided wave optical approaches, especially if very high clock rates or dense wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is to be avoided. Free-space optics potentially can handle the necessary bandwidths even without fast clocks or WDM. With such technology, however, optics may enable the continued scaling of interconnect capacity required by future chips.

Device Requirements for Optical Interconnects to Silicon Chips

The past decade has seen rapid progress in research into high-performance Ge-on-Si photodetectors. Owing to their excellent optoelectronic properties, which include high responsivity from visible to near-infrared wavelengths, high bandwidths and compatibility with silicon complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor circuits, these devices can be monolithically integrated with silicon-based read-out circuits for applications such as high-performance photonic data links and infrared imaging at low cost and low power consumption. This Review summarizes the major developments in Ge-on-Si photodetectors, including epitaxial growth and strain engineering, free-space and waveguide-integrated devices, as well as recent progress in Ge-on-Si avalanche photodetectors. Owing to their excellent optoelectronic properties, Ge-on-Si photodetector can be monolithically integrated with silicon-based read-out circuits for applications such as high-performance photonic data links and low-cost infrared imaging at low power consumption. This Review covers the major developments in Ge-on-Si photodetectors, including epitaxial growth and strain engineering, free-space and waveguide-integrated devices, as well as recent progress in Ge-on-Si avalanche photodetectors.

High-performance Ge-on-Si photodetectors

Monolithic lasers on Si are ideal for high-volume and large-scale electronic-photonic integration. Ge is an interesting candidate owing to its pseudodirect gap properties and compatibility with Si complementary metal oxide semiconductor technology. Recently we have demonstrated room-temperature photoluminescence, electroluminescence, and optical gain from the direct gap transition of band-engineered Ge-on-Si using tensile strain and n-type doping. Here we report what we believe to be the first experimental observation of lasing from the direct gap transition of Ge-on-Si at room temperature using an edge-emitting waveguide device. The emission exhibited a gain spectrum of 1590-1610 nm, line narrowing and polarization evolution from a mixed TE/TM to predominantly TE with increasing gain, and a clear threshold behavior.

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Ge-on-Si laser operating at room temperature.

We analyze the optical gain of tensile-strained, n-type Ge material for Si-compatible laser applications. The band structure of unstrained Ge exhibits indirect conduction band valleys (L) lower than the direct valley (Γ) by 136 meV. Adequate strain and n-type doping engineering can effectively provide population inversion in the direct bandgap of Ge. The tensile strain decreases the difference between the L valleys and the Γ valley, while the extrinsic electrons from n-type doping fill the L valleys to the level of the Γ valley to compensate for the remaining energy difference. Our modeling shows that with a combination of 0.25% tensile strain and an extrinsic electron density of 7.6×1019/cm3 by n-type doping, a net material gain of ~400 cm-1 can be obtained from the direct gap transition of Ge despite of the free carrier absorption loss. The threshold current density for lasing is estimated to be ~6kA cm-2 for a typical edge-emitting double heterojunction structure. These results indicate that tensile strained n-type Ge is a good candidate for Si integrated lasers.

Tensile-strained, n-type Ge as a gain medium for monolithic laser integration on Si

A waveguide–integrated GeSi electro-absorption modulator on silicon with an ultra-low energy consumption of 50 fJ–1bit is presented. Operating in the spectral range of 1539—1553 nm, the CMOS–compatible device has an active area of 30 µm2 and is anticipated to be useful for future communication systems based on large–scale electronic–photonic integration on silicon.

Waveguide-integrated, ultralow-energy GeSi electro-absorption modulators

Photonic systems based on complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology require the integration of passive and active photonic devices. The integration of waveguides and photodetector is one of the most important technologies. We report a Ge p-i-n photodetector that is monolithically integrated with silicon oxynitride and silicon nitride waveguides. All processes and materials are CMOS compatible and can be implemented in the current integrated circuit process technology. The small size of the devices results in low absolute dark current. The waveguide-coupled Ge devices show high efficiency (~90%) over a wide range of wavelengths well beyond the direct band gap of Ge, resulting in a responsivity of 1.08 A/W for 1550 nm light. The device speed of 7.2 GHz at 1V reverse bias is strongly affected by the capacitance of the probe pads. The high-performance of the devices at low voltage (≤ 1V) facilitates the integration with CMOS circuits.

Jifeng Liu

Papers

High-performance Ge-on-Si photodetectors

Ge-on-Si laser operating at room temperature.

Tensile-strained, n-type Ge as a gain medium for monolithic laser integration on Si

Waveguide-integrated, ultralow-energy GeSi electro-absorption modulators

High performance, waveguide integrated Ge photodetectors