Showing papers by "Joost C. F. de Winter published in 2015"

The relationship between tweets, citations, and article views for PLOS ONE articles

Abstract: An analysis of article-level metrics of 27,856 PLOS ONE articles reveals that the number of tweets was weakly associated with the number of citations (β = 0.10), and weakly negatively associated with citations when the number of article views was held constant (β = ?0.06). The number of tweets was predictive of other social media activity (β = 0.34 for Mendeley and β = 0.41 for Facebook), but not of the number of article views on PubMed Central (β = 0.01). It is concluded that the scientific citation process acts relatively independently of the social dynamics on Twitter.

The Effect of Haptic Support Systems on Driver Performance: A Literature Survey

Abstract: A large number of haptic driver support systems have been described in the scientific literature. However, there is little consensus regarding the design, evaluation methods, and effectiveness of these systems. This literature survey aimed to investigate: (1) what haptic systems (in terms of function, haptic signal, channel, and supported task) have been experimentally tested, (2) how these haptic systems have been evaluated, and (3) their reported effects on driver performance and behaviour. We reviewed empirical research in which participants had to drive a vehicle in a real or simulated environment, were able to control the heading and/or speed of the vehicle, and a haptic signal was provided to them. The results indicated that a clear distinction can be made between warning systems (using vibrations) and guidance systems (using continuous forces). Studies typically used reaction time measures for evaluating warning systems and vehicle-centred performance measures for evaluating guidance systems. In general, haptic warning systems reduced the reaction time of a driver compared to no warnings, although these systems may cause annoyance. Guidance systems generally improved the performance of drivers compared to non-aided driving, but these systems may suffer from after-effects. Longitudinal research is needed to investigate the transfer and retention of effects caused by haptic support systems.

An International Crowdsourcing Study into People's Statements on Fully Automated Driving

Abstract: Fully automated driving can potentially provide enormous benefits to society. However, it has been unclear whether people will appreciate such far-reaching technology. This study investigated anonymous textual comments regarding fully automated driving, based on data extracted from three online surveys with 8,862 respondents from 112 countries. Initial filtering of comments with fewer than 15 characters resulted in 1,952 comments. The sample consisted primarily of males (1,429 males, 513 females, 10 gender unknown) and had a mean age of 32.6 years. Next, we launched a crowdsourcing job and asked 69 workers to assign each of the 1,952 comments to at least one of 12 predefined categories, which included positive and negative attitude to automated driving, enjoyment in manual driving, concerns about trust, reliability of software, and readiness of road infrastructure. 46% of the comments were classified into the category ‘no meaningful information about automated driving’, leaving 792 comments for further analysis. 39% of these comments were classified as ‘positive attitude towards automated driving’ and 23% were classified as ‘negative attitude towards automated driving’. In conclusion, the public opinion appears to be split, with a significant number of respondents being positive and a significant number of respondents being negative towards fully automated driving.

Should drivers be operating within an automation-free bandwidth? Evaluating haptic steering support systems with different levels of authority

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to compare continuous versus bandwidth haptic steering guidance in terms of lane-keeping behavior, aftereffects, and satisfaction. BACKGROUND: An important human factors question is whether operators should be supported continuously or only when tolerance limits are exceeded. We aimed to clarify this issue for haptic steering guidance by investigating costs and benefits of both approaches in a driving simulator. METHODS: Thirty-two participants drove five trials, each with a different level of haptic support: no guidance (Manual); guidance outside a 0.5-m bandwidth (Band1); a hysteresis version of Band1, which guided back to the lane center once triggered (Band2); continuous guidance (Cont); and Cont with double feedback gain (ContS). Participants performed a reaction time task while driving. Toward the end of each trial, the guidance was unexpectedly disabled to investigate aftereffects. RESULTS: All four guidance systems prevented large lateral errors (>0.7 m). Cont and especially ContS yielded smaller lateral errors and higher time to line crossing than Manual, Band1, and Band2. Cont and ContS yielded short-lasting aftereffects, whereas Band1 and Band2 did not. Cont yielded higher self-reported satisfaction and faster reaction times than Band1. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous and bandwidth guidance both prevent large driver errors. Continuous guidance yields improved performance and satisfaction over bandwidth guidance at the cost of aftereffects and variability in driver torque (indicating human-automation conflicts). APPLICATION: The presented results are useful for designers of haptic guidance systems and support critical thinking about the costs and benefits of automation support systems. Language: en

Auditory interfaces in automated driving: an international survey

Abstract: This study investigated peoples' opinion on auditory interfaces in contemporary cars and their willingness to be exposed to auditory feedback in automated driving. We used an Internet-based survey to collect 1,205 responses from 91 countries. The respondents stated their attitudes towards two existing auditory driver assistance systems, a parking assistant (PA) and a forward collision warning system (FCWS), as well as towards a futuristic augmented sound system (FS) proposed for fully automated driving. The respondents were positive towards the PA and FCWS, and rated the willingness to have automated versions of these systems as 3.87 and 3.77, respectively (on a scale from 1 = disagree strongly to 5 = agree strongly). The respondents tolerated the FS (the mean willingness to use was 3.00 on the same scale). The results showed that among the available response options, the female voice was the most preferred feedback type for takeover requests in highly automated driving, regardless of whether the respondents' country was English speaking or not. The present results could be useful for designers of automated vehicles and other stakeholders. Practitioner Summary: In an Internet-based survey, peoples' opinion on auditory interfaces in contemporary cars and people's willingness to be exposed to auditory feedback in automated driving were evaluated. The results showed that a female voice was the most preferred feedback mode for takeover requests in highly automated driving.

Robust Hand Motion Tracking through Data Fusion of 5DT Data Glove and Nimble VR Kinect Camera Measurements

Abstract: Vision based interfaces for human computer interaction have gained increasing attention over the past decade. This study presents a data fusion approach of the Nimble VR vision based system, using the Kinect camera, with the contact based 5DT Data Glove. Data fusion was achieved through a Kalman filter. The Nimble VR and filter output were compared using measurements performed on (1) a wooden hand model placed in various static postures and orientations; and (2) three differently sized human hands during active finger flexions. Precision and accuracy of joint angle estimates as a function of hand posture and orientation were determined. Moreover, in light of possible self-occlusions of the fingers in the Kinect camera images, data completeness was assessed. Results showed that the integration of the Data Glove through the Kalman filter provided for the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints of the fingers a substantial improvement of 79% in precision, from 2.2 deg to 0.9 deg. Moreover, a moderate improvement of 31% in accuracy (being the mean angular deviation from the true joint angle) was established, from 24 deg to 17 deg. The metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint was relatively unaffected by the Kalman filter. Moreover, the Data Glove increased data completeness, thus providing a substantial advantage over the sole use of the Nimble VR system.

A quarter of a century of the DBQ: some supplementary notes on its validity with regard to accidents

Abstract: This article synthesises the latest information on the relationship between the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and accidents. We show by means of computer simulation that correlations with accidents are necessarily small because accidents are rare events. An updated meta-analysis on the zero-order correlations between the DBQ and self-reported accidents yielded an overall r of .13 (fixed-effect and random-effects models) for violations (57,480 participants; 67 samples) and .09 (fixed-effect and random-effects models) for errors (66,028 participants; 56 samples). An analysis of a previously published DBQ dataset (975 participants) showed that by aggregating across four measurement occasions, the correlation coefficient with self-reported accidents increased from .14 to .24 for violations and from .11 to .19 for errors. Our meta-analysis also showed that DBQ violations (r = .24; 6353 participants; 20 samples) but not DBQ errors (r = - .08; 1086 participants; 16 samples) correlated with recorded vehicle speed. Practitioner Summary: The DBQ is probably the most widely used self-report questionnaire in driver behaviour research. This study shows that DBQ violations and errors correlate moderately with self-reported traffic accidents.

Using Crowdflower to Study the Relationship between Self-Reported Violations and Traffic Accidents

Abstract: Crowdsourcing is a promising approach for Human Factors survey research. We explored the use of a relatively new crowdsourcing platform called CrowdFlower. Our survey focused on the relationship between self-reported traffic accidents and violations measured with the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). We obtained 1,862 responses within 20 hours at a cost of $247. The demographic correlates of DBQ violations were consistent with those of traditionally recruited samples. The correlation between DBQ violations and self-reported accidents was ρ = .28. Self-reported accidents at the national level (N = 18 countries) correlated strongly (ρ = .68/.79) with accident statistics published by the World Health Organization. Large international differences were observed, with horn honking being relatively common in India and Indonesia and speeding being common in some Western countries. We conclude that CrowdFlower is an efficient tool for conducting international surveys.

A Review and Framework of Control Authority Transitions in Automated Driving

Abstract: The paper reviews some of the essentials of human-machine interaction in automated driving, focusing on control authority transitions. We introduce a driving state model describing the human monitoring level and the allocation of lateral and longitudinal control tasks. An authority transition in automated driving is defined as the process of changing from one static state of driving to another static state. Based on (1) who initiates the transition and (2) who is in control after the transition, we categorize transitions into four types: driver-initiated driver control (DIDC), driver-initiated automation control (DIAC), automation-initiated driver control (AIDC), and automation-initiated automation control (AIAC). Finally, we discuss the effects of human-machine interfaces on driving performance during transitions.

Workload assessment for mental arithmetic tasks using the task-evoked pupillary response

Abstract: Pupillometry is a promising method for assessing mental workload and could be helpful in the optimization of systems that involve human-computer interaction. The present study focuses on replicating the pupil diameter study by Ahern (1978) for mental multiplications of varying difficulty, using an automatic remote eye tracker. Our results showed that the findings of Ahern were replicated and that the mean pupil diameter and mean pupil diameter change (MPDC) discriminated just as well between the three difficulty levels as did a self-report questionnaire of mental workload (NASA-TLX). A higher mean blink rate was observed during the multiplication period for the highest level of difficulty in comparison with the other two levels. Moderate to strong correlations were found between the MPDC and the proportion of incorrect responses, indicating that the MPDC was higher for participants with a lower performance. For practical applications, validity could be improved by combining pupillometry with other physiological techniques.

Reflections on the 1951 Fitts List: Do Humans Believe Now That Machines Surpass Them?

Abstract: In 1951, Paul Fitts “surveyed the kinds of things men can do better than present-day machines, and vice versa” and introduced a list of statements, now commonly known as the Fitts list. A criticism sometimes raised with respect to the Fitts list is that it is outdated. Hence, it is important to address the issue of modernity, especially in light of the increasing rate of technological advance. A total of 249 engineering MSc students were asked to indicate whether humans surpass machines or whether machines surpass humans, for each of the 11 statements of the Fitts list, using an electronic voting system. 2,948 respondents from 103 countries did the same via a crowdsourcing facility. The results indicated that present-day machines are considered to surpass humans in respect to detection, perception, and long-term memory while Fitts argued that the opposite held true. However, a closer reading of the 1951 report reveals that some of the supposed disagreements were already anticipated at that time.

Effects of visual fidelity on curve negotiation, gaze behaviour and simulator discomfort

Abstract: Technological developments have led to increased visual fidelity of driving simulators. However, simplified visuals have potential advantages, such as improved experimental control, reduced simulator discomfort and increased generalisability of results. In this driving simulator study, we evaluated the effects of visual fidelity on driving performance, gaze behaviour and subjective discomfort ratings. Twenty-four participants drove a track with 90° corners in (1) a high fidelity, textured environment, (2) a medium fidelity, non-textured environment without scenery objects and (3) a low-fidelity monochrome environment that only showed lane markers. The high fidelity level resulted in higher steering activity on straight road segments, higher driving speeds and higher gaze variance than the lower fidelity levels. No differences were found between the two lower fidelity levels. In conclusion, textures and objects were found to affect steering activity and driving performance; however, gaze behaviour during curve negotiation and self-reported simulator discomfort were unaffected. Practitioner Summary: In a driving simulator study, three levels of visual fidelity were evaluated. The results indicate that the highest fidelity level, characterised by a textured environment, resulted in higher steering activity, higher driving speeds and higher variance of horizontal gaze than the two lower fidelity levels without textures.

Measuring drivers’ visual information needs during braking: A simulator study using a screen-occlusion method

Abstract: It is commonly accepted that vision plays an important role in car braking, but it is unknown how people brake in the absence of visual information. In this simulator study, we measured drivers’ braking behaviour while they had to stop their car at designated positions on the road. The access to visual information was manipulated by occluding the screen at the start of half of the braking trials, while the temporal demand was manipulated by varying the time-to-arrival (TTA). Results showed that for the longer TTA values (⩾6 s), participants in the occlusion condition stopped too early and at variable positions on the road as compared to the control condition. In the occlusion condition, participants were likely to apply an intermediate brake pedal depression, whereas in the control condition participants more often applied low or high pedal depressions. The results are interpreted in light of a distance estimation test, in which we found that participants underestimated the actual distance by 70%.