抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Summary for policymakers Technical summary 1. The climate system - an overview 2. Observed climate variability and change 3. The carbon cycle and atmospheric CO2 4. Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases 5. Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects 6. Radiative forcing of climate change 7. Physical climate processes and feedbacks 8. Model evaluation 9. Projections of future climate change 10. Regional climate simulation - evaluation and projections 11. Changes in sea level 12. Detection of climate change and attribution of causes 13. Climate scenario development 14. Advancing our understanding Glossary Index Appendix.

Climate change 2001: the scientific basis

Identifying and quantifying planetary boundaries that must not be transgressed could help prevent human activities from causing unacceptable environmental change, argue Johan Rockstrom and colleagues.

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A safe operating space for humanity

Drafting Authors: Neil Adger, Pramod Aggarwal, Shardul Agrawala, Joseph Alcamo, Abdelkader Allali, Oleg Anisimov, Nigel Arnell, Michel Boko, Osvaldo Canziani, Timothy Carter, Gino Casassa, Ulisses Confalonieri, Rex Victor Cruz, Edmundo de Alba Alcaraz, William Easterling, Christopher Field, Andreas Fischlin, Blair Fitzharris, Carlos Gay García, Clair Hanson, Hideo Harasawa, Kevin Hennessy, Saleemul Huq, Roger Jones, Lucka Kajfež Bogataj, David Karoly, Richard Klein, Zbigniew Kundzewicz, Murari Lal, Rodel Lasco, Geoff Love, Xianfu Lu, Graciela Magrín, Luis José Mata, Roger McLean, Bettina Menne, Guy Midgley, Nobuo Mimura, Monirul Qader Mirza, José Moreno, Linda Mortsch, Isabelle Niang-Diop, Robert Nicholls, Béla Nováky, Leonard Nurse, Anthony Nyong, Michael Oppenheimer, Jean Palutikof, Martin Parry, Anand Patwardhan, Patricia Romero Lankao, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Stephen Schneider, Serguei Semenov, Joel Smith, John Stone, Jean-Pascal van Ypersele, David Vaughan, Coleen Vogel, Thomas Wilbanks, Poh Poh Wong, Shaohong Wu, Gary Yohe

Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

This paper describes the contents of the 2016 edition of the HITRAN molecular spectroscopic compilation. The new edition replaces the previous HITRAN edition of 2012 and its updates during the intervening years. The HITRAN molecular absorption compilation is composed of five major components: the traditional line-by-line spectroscopic parameters required for high-resolution radiative-transfer codes, infrared absorption cross-sections for molecules not yet amenable to representation in a line-by-line form, collision-induced absorption data, aerosol indices of refraction, and general tables such as partition sums that apply globally to the data. The new HITRAN is greatly extended in terms of accuracy, spectral coverage, additional absorption phenomena, added line-shape formalisms, and validity. Moreover, molecules, isotopologues, and perturbing gases have been added that address the issues of atmospheres beyond the Earth. Of considerable note, experimental IR cross-sections for almost 300 additional molecules important in different areas of atmospheric science have been added to the database. The compilation can be accessed through www.hitran.org. Most of the HITRAN data have now been cast into an underlying relational database structure that offers many advantages over the long-standing sequential text-based structure. The new structure empowers the user in many ways. It enables the incorporation of an extended set of fundamental parameters per transition, sophisticated line-shape formalisms, easy user-defined output formats, and very convenient searching, filtering, and plotting of data. A powerful application programming interface making use of structured query language (SQL) features for higher-level applications of HITRAN is also provided.

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The HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database

/pdf/nitrous-oxide-from-aquaculture-5gbjd4rm9d.pdf

Nitrous oxide from aquaculture

Theoretical calculations are presented for homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing of sulfuric acid droplets under stratospheric conditions, based on classical nucleation theory. In contrast to previous results it is shown that a prominent candidate for freezing, sulfuric acid tetrahydrate (SAT ≡ H2SO4·4H2O), does not freeze homogeneously. The theoretical results limit the homogeneous freezing rate at 200 K to much less than 1 cm−3s−1, a value that may be estimated from bulk phase laboratory experiments. This suggests that the experimental value is likely to be a measure of heterogeneous, not homogeneous nucleation. Thus, under statospheric conditions, freezing of SAT can only occur in the presence of suitable nuclei; however, even for heterogeneous nucleation experimental results impose strong constraints. Since a nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) embryo probably needs a solid body for nucleation, these results put an important constraint on the theory of NAT formation in polar stratospheric clouds.

Freezing of stratospheric aerosol droplets

In the troposphere, anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide cause large-scale photochemical build up of ozone. In the stratosphere breakdown of anthropogenic halocarbons damages the ozone layer. In the extratropics a transition region between these air layers occurs, the lowermost stratosphere (below 12–14 km', in which about half the current subsonic air traffic takes place. Here, we report aircraft measurements of HNO3, O3 and CO over western Europe in July 1994 (5 flights of several hours during a 10-day period', at approximately 1–2 km above the tropopause. The HNO3 mixing ratios observed were highly variable (0.76–1.2 ppbv', while HNO3/O3 ratios seem relatively high (5.2–7.0 10−3'. Moreover, several times we observed very high levels of pollutant CO (up to ∼0.5 ppmv' that did not originate from aircraft exhausts. Instead, we pose that it had mixed-in from the troposphere. Cross-tropopause mixing also helps explaining the variable HNO3 and relatively high HNO3/O3 ratios. These measurements suggest that relatively short-lived surface emitted pollutants can reach the lowermost stratosphere. We expect that this contributes to O3 formation.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/97GL00255

Chemical perturbation of the lowermost stratosphere through exchange with the troposphere

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at the Sonnblick Observatory, Austria (3106 m a.s.l.) were measured in autumn 1999 using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). Anthropogenic VOCs at this remote site, such as benzene and toluene (50 pptv to 2 ppbv), were primarily traced to air from urban areas. In mid-November, following a hard freeze in the central Alps, a different pattern of VOCs developed similar to that seen with C5 and C6 leaf wound compounds (0.5 to 5 ppbv range). The common origins of these compounds are proposed to be freeze-damaged leaves, inferred from laboratory investigations that identified hexenals, hexanal, methylbutanals, pentenol and pentenone formation in such leaves. We suggest that deciduous forests can release large amounts of reactive VOCs during the autumn, and that these releases may be important for regional tropospheric chemistry.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2000GL012255

High concentrations of reactive biogenic VOCs at a high altitude site in late autumn

In an attempt to identify new mechanisms for the generation of oxidants during fall and winter, we carried out a modeling investigation in which ozonolysis reactions of alkenes that were primarily anthropogenic in origin were considered. Our results indicate that the ozonolysis reactions of these molecules can be the major sources of HOx, H2O2, and organic peroxides during the night and therefore especially during dark seasons. These O3-initiated oxidation reactions produce more peroxy radicals than those initiated by HO or NO3. This increase in RO2 also results in an increase in HO, HO2, and H2O2. The direct HO formation pathways by ozonolysis of alkenes can form more HO radicals than that from the reaction of O(1D) + H2O during the dark seasons. This additional source of HO can augment significantly atmospheric oxidation. H2O2 formation by ozonolysis also appears to be the most important dark season tropospheric sources of this oxidant. Our modeling results suggest that the existence of pollutant hydrocarbons and trace amount of biogenically produced terpenes can also lead to important production of HOx, H2O2, and organic peroxides. Substantially enhanced gas-phase production of H2O2 and organic peroxides due to ozonolysis reactions can cause significant liquid-phase oxidation of S(IV) to S(VI), and hence the role of ozonolysis reactions can be important for the sulfur conversion studies.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2000JD900074

Paul J. Crutzen

Papers

Nitrous oxide from aquaculture

Freezing of stratospheric aerosol droplets

Chemical perturbation of the lowermost stratosphere through exchange with the troposphere

High concentrations of reactive biogenic VOCs at a high altitude site in late autumn

Significance of HO x and peroxides production due to alkene ozonolysis during fall and winter: A modeling study