Single-layer metal dichalcogenides are two-dimensional semiconductors that present strong potential for electronic and sensing applications complementary to that of graphene.

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Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides.

The electronic properties of ultrathin crystals of molybdenum disulfide consisting of N=1,2,…,6 S-Mo-S monolayers have been investigated by optical spectroscopy Through characterization by absorption, photoluminescence, and photoconductivity spectroscopy, we trace the effect of quantum confinement on the material's electronic structure With decreasing thickness, the indirect band gap, which lies below the direct gap in the bulk material, shifts upwards in energy by more than 06 eV This leads to a crossover to a direct-gap material in the limit of the single monolayer Unlike the bulk material, the MoS₂ monolayer emits light strongly The freestanding monolayer exhibits an increase in luminescence quantum efficiency by more than a factor of 10⁴ compared with the bulk material

Atomically thin MoS2: a new direct-gap semiconductor

Graphene-Like Two-Dimensional Materials

The last decade witnessed significant progress in angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) and its applications. Today, ARPES experiments with 2-meV energy resolution and $0.2\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}$ angular resolution are a reality even for photoemission on solids. These technological advances and the improved sample quality have enabled ARPES to emerge as a leading tool in the investigation of the high-${T}_{c}$ superconductors. This paper reviews the most recent ARPES results on the cuprate superconductors and their insulating parent and sister compounds, with the purpose of providing an updated summary of the extensive literature. The low-energy excitations are discussed with emphasis on some of the most relevant issues, such as the Fermi surface and remnant Fermi surface, the superconducting gap, the pseudogap and $d$-wave-like dispersion, evidence of electronic inhomogeneity and nanoscale phase separation, the emergence of coherent quasiparticles through the superconducting transition, and many-body effects in the one-particle spectral function due to the interaction of the charge with magnetic and/or lattice degrees of freedom. Given the dynamic nature of the field, we chose to focus mainly on reviewing the experimental data, as on the experimental side a general consensus has been reached, whereas interpretations and related theoretical models can vary significantly. The first part of the paper introduces photoemission spectroscopy in the context of strongly interacting systems, along with an update on the state-of-the-art instrumentation. The second part provides an overview of the scientific issues relevant to the investigation of the low-energy electronic structure by ARPES. The rest of the paper is devoted to the experimental results from the cuprates, and the discussion is organized along conceptual lines: normal-state electronic structure, interlayer interaction, superconducting gap, coherent superconducting peak, pseudogap, electron self-energy, and collective modes. Within each topic, ARPES data from the various copper oxides are presented.

https://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0208504.pdf

Angle-resolved photoemission studies of the cuprate superconductors

Gallium oxide (Ga2O3) is emerging as a viable candidate for certain classes of power electronics, solar blind UV photodetectors, solar cells, and sensors with capabilities beyond existing technologies due to its large bandgap. It is usually reported that there are five different polymorphs of Ga2O3, namely, the monoclinic (β-Ga2O3), rhombohedral (α), defective spinel (γ), cubic (δ), or orthorhombic (e) structures. Of these, the β-polymorph is the stable form under normal conditions and has been the most widely studied and utilized. Since melt growth techniques can be used to grow bulk crystals of β-GaO3, the cost of producing larger area, uniform substrates is potentially lower compared to the vapor growth techniques used to manufacture bulk crystals of GaN and SiC. The performance of technologically important high voltage rectifiers and enhancement-mode Metal-Oxide Field Effect Transistors benefit from the larger critical electric field of β-Ga2O3 relative to either SiC or GaN. However, the absence of clear demonstrations of p-type doping in Ga2O3, which may be a fundamental issue resulting from the band structure, makes it very difficult to simultaneously achieve low turn-on voltages and ultra-high breakdown. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent advances in the growth, processing, and device performance of the most widely studied polymorph, β-Ga2O3. The role of defects and impurities on the transport and optical properties of bulk, epitaxial, and nanostructures material, the difficulty in p-type doping, and the development of processing techniques like etching, contact formation, dielectrics for gate formation, and passivation are discussed. Areas where continued development is needed to fully exploit the properties of Ga2O3 are identified.

A review of Ga2O3 materials, processing, and devices

In this work the complete valence-band structure of the molybdenum dichalcogenides ${\mathrm{MoS}}_{2},$ ${\mathrm{MoSe}}_{2},$ and $\ensuremath{\alpha}\ensuremath{-}{\mathrm{MoTe}}_{2}$ is presented and discussed in comparison. The valence bands have been studied using both angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES) with synchrotron radiation, as well as ab initio band-structure calculations. The ARPES measurements have been carried out in the constant-final-state (CFS) mode. The results of the calculations show in general very good agreement with the experimentally determined valence-band structures allowing for a clear identification of the observed features. The dispersion of the valence bands as a function of the perpendicular component ${k}_{\ensuremath{\perp}}$ of the wave vector reveals a decreasing three-dimensional character from ${\mathrm{MoS}}_{2}$ to $\ensuremath{\alpha}\ensuremath{-}{\mathrm{MoTe}}_{2}$ which is attributed to an increasing interlayer distance in the three compounds. The effect of this ${k}_{\ensuremath{\perp}}$ dispersion on the determination of the exact dispersion of the individual states as a function of ${k}_{\ensuremath{\Vert}}$ is discussed. By performing ARPES in the CFS mode the ${k}_{\ensuremath{\Vert}}$ component for off-normal emission spectra can be determined. The corresponding ${k}_{\ensuremath{\perp}}$ value is obtained from the symmetry of the spectra along the $\ensuremath{\Gamma}A,$ $KH,$ and $\mathrm{ML}$ lines, respectively.

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Band structure of MoS 2 , MoSe 2 , and α − MoTe 2 : Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations

The Schottky barrier height of Au deposited on (100) surfaces of n-type β-Ga2O3 single crystals was determined by current-voltage characteristics and high-resolution photoemission spectroscopy resulting in a common effective value of 1.04 ± 0.08 eV. Furthermore, the electron affinity of β-Ga2O3 and the work function of Au were determined to be 4.00 ± 0.05 eV and 5.23 ± 0.05 eV, respectively, yielding a barrier height of 1.23 eV according to the Schottky-Mott rule. The reduction of the Schottky-Mott barrier to the effective value was ascribed to the image-force effect and the action of metal-induced gap states, whereas extrinsic influences could be avoided.

Schottky barrier height of Au on the transparent semiconducting oxide β-Ga2O3

Transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) pose a number of serious challenges. In addition to the pursuit of high-quality single crystals and thin films, their application has to be preceded by a thorough understanding of their peculiar electronic structure. It is of fundamental interest to understand why these materials, transparent up to the UV spectral regime, behave also as conductors. Here we investigate In2O3 and Ga2O3, two binary oxides, which show the smallest and largest optical gaps among conventional n-type TCOs. The investigations on the electronic structure were performed on high-quality n-type single crystals showing carrier densities of ~1019?cm?3 (In2O3) and ~1017?cm?3 (Ga2O3). The subjects addressed for both materials are: the determination of the band structure along high-symmetry directions and fundamental gaps by angular resolved photoemission (ARPES). We also address the orbital character of the valence- and conduction-band regions by exploiting photoemission cross sections in x-ray photoemission (XPS) and by x-ray absorption (XAS). The observations are discussed with reference to calculations of the electronic structure and the experimental results on thin films.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/13/8/085014/pdf

Experimental electronic structure of In 2 O 3 and Ga 2 O 3

β-Ga2O3 has the widest energy gap of the transparent conducting oxides. The interest in its electronic properties has recently increased because of its applications in various optoelectronic devices, semiconductor lasers, and ultrasensitive gas detecting systems. In contrast, information on the electronic structure of β-Ga2O3 is very scarce. Here, we present the experimental valence-band structure of β-Ga2O3 single crystals determined by high-resolution angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy utilizing synchrotron radiation. We find good matching of the experimental band structure with the advanced density functional theory calculations employing hybrid functionals and projector augmented wave potentials.

The electronic structure of β-Ga2O3

Single crystals of layered transition-metal dichalcogenide compounds of ${\text{ZrS}}_{x}{\text{Se}}_{2\ensuremath{-}x}$ with composition $0\ensuremath{\le}x\ensuremath{\le}2$ were grown by the chemical-vapor-transport technique and characterized with the help of different methods. Indirect gap transitions with remarkably high values of the absorption coefficient $\ensuremath{\alpha}$ $(h\ensuremath{\nu})$ and the energy-gap values have been extracted from the optical-absorption measurements. An approximate linear dependence of the band gaps on the composition parameter $x$ has been observed, qualifying them to become promising candidates for band gap engineering. The range of the obtained band gaps, which varies from 1.18 eV for ${\text{ZrSe}}_{2}$ to 1.7 eV for ${\text{ZrS}}_{2}$, is suitable for photovoltaic applications in both single- and multiple-junction cells. Additionally, a significant absorption-coefficient tail near the fundamental absorption edge is discussed, which is found to obey the Urbach rule.

Recardo Manzke

Papers

Band structure of MoS 2 , MoSe 2 , and α − MoTe 2 : Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations

Schottky barrier height of Au on the transparent semiconducting oxide β-Ga2O3

Experimental electronic structure of In 2 O 3 and Ga 2 O 3

The electronic structure of β-Ga2O3

Growth and band gap determination of the ZrS x Se 2-x single crystal series