https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/685594/file/1130605.pdf

Review of Particle Physics

The Pythia program can be used to generate high-energy-physics ''events'', i.e. sets of outgoing particles produced in the interactions between two incoming particles. The objective is to provide as accurate as possible a representation of event properties in a wide range of reactions, within and beyond the Standard Model, with emphasis on those where strong interactions play a role, directly or indirectly, and therefore multihadronic final states are produced. The physics is then not understood well enough to give an exact description; instead the program has to be based on a combination of analytical results and various QCD-based models. This physics input is summarized here, for areas such as hard subprocesses, initial- and final-state parton showers, underlying events and beam remnants, fragmentation and decays, and much more. Furthermore, extensive information is provided on all program elements: subroutines and functions, switches and parameters, and particle and process data. This should allow the user to tailor the generation task to the topics of interest.

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PYTHIA 6.4 Physics and Manual

Missale, Cristina, S. Russel Nash, Susan W. Robinson, Mohamed Jaber, and Marc G. Caron. Dopamine Receptors: From Structure to Function. Physiol. Rev. 78: 189–225, 1998. — The diverse physiological actions of dopamine are mediated by at least five distinct G protein-coupled receptor subtypes. Two D1-like receptor subtypes (D1 and D5) couple to the G protein Gs and activate adenylyl cyclase. The other receptor subtypes belong to the D2-like subfamily (D2 , D3 , and D4) and are prototypic of G protein-coupled receptors that inhibit adenylyl cyclase and activate K+ channels. The genes for the D1 and D5 receptors are intronless, but pseudogenes of the D5 exist. The D2 and D3 receptors vary in certain tissues and species as a result of alternative splicing, and the human D4 receptor gene exhibits extensive polymorphic variation. In the central nervous system, dopamine receptors are widely expressed because they are involved in the control of locomotion, cognition, emotion, and affect as well as neuroendocrine s...

Dopamine Receptors: From Structure to Function

▪ Abstract Neurotransmitter release is mediated by exocytosis of synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic active zone of nerve terminals. To support rapid and repeated rounds of release, synaptic vesicles undergo a trafficking cycle. The focal point of the vesicle cycle is Ca2+-triggered exocytosis that is followed by different routes of endocytosis and recycling. Recycling then leads to the docking and priming of the vesicles for another round of exo- and endocytosis. Recent studies have led to a better definition than previously available of how Ca2+ triggers exocytosis and how vesicles recycle. In particular, insight into how Munc18-1 collaborates with SNARE proteins in fusion, how the vesicular Ca2+ sensor synaptotagmin 1 triggers fast release, and how the vesicular Rab3 protein regulates release by binding to the active zone proteins RIM1α and RIM2α has advanced our understanding of neurotransmitter release. The present review attempts to relate these molecular data with physiological results in an emerg...

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The synaptic vesicle cycle

This article reports world averages of measurements of b-hadron, c-hadron, and tau-lepton properties obtained by the Heavy Flavor Averaging Group (HFAG) using results available through the end of 2011. In some cases results available in the early part of 2012 are included. For the averaging, common input parameters used in the various analyses are adjusted (rescaled) to common values, and known correlations are taken into account. The averages include branching fractions, lifetimes, neutral meson mixing parameters, CP violation parameters, parameters of semileptonic decays and CKM matrix elements.

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Averages of b-hadron, c-hadron, and tau-lepton properties as of early 2012

We review the implications of the spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking in QCD for processes involving one, two, or more nucleons.

Chiral dynamics in nucleons and nuclei

Two proteins previously known as Na(+)-dependent phosphate transporters have been identified recently as vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT1 and VGLUT2) Together, VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 are operating at most central glutamatergic synapses In this study, we characterized a third vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT3), highly homologous to VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 Vesicles isolated from endocrine cells expressing recombinant VGLUT3 accumulated l-glutamate with bioenergetic and pharmacological characteristics similar, but not identical, to those displayed by the type-1 and type-2 isoforms Interestingly, the distribution of VGLUT3 mRNA was restricted to a small number of neurons scattered in the striatum, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and raphe nuclei, in contrast to VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 transcripts, which are massively expressed in cortical and deep structures of the brain, respectively At the ultrastructural level, VGLUT3 immunoreactivity was concentrated over synaptic vesicle clusters present in nerve endings forming asymmetrical as well as symmetrical synapses Finally, VGLUT3-positive neurons of the striatum and raphe nuclei were shown to coexpress acetylcholine and serotonin transporters, respectively Our study reveals a novel class of glutamatergic nerve terminals and suggests that cholinergic striatal interneurons and serotoninergic neurons from the brainstem may store and release glutamate

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/22/13/5442.full.pdf

A Third Vesicular Glutamate Transporter Expressed by Cholinergic and Serotoninergic Neurons

Before their exocytotic release during stimulation of nerve terminals, nonpeptide neurotransmitters are loaded into synaptic vesicles by specific transporters. Recently, a protein initially identified as brain-specific Na(+)-dependent inorganic phosphate transporter I (BNPI) has been shown to represent a vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT1). In this study, we investigated whether a highly homologous "differentiation-associated Na(+)-dependent inorganic phosphate transporter" (DNPI) is involved in glutamatergic transmission. Vesicles isolated from BON cells expressing recombinant DNPI accumulated l-glutamate with bioenergetical and pharmacological characteristics identical to those displayed by VGLUT1 and by brain synaptic vesicles. Moreover, DNPI localized to synaptic vesicles, at synapses exhibiting classical excitatory features. DNPI thus represents a novel vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT2). The distributions of each VGLUT transcript in brain were highly complementary, with only a partial regional and cellular overlap. At the protein level, we could only detect either VGLUT1- or VGLUT2-expressing presynaptic boutons. The existence of two VGLUTs thus defines distinct subsets of glutamatergic neurons.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/21/22/RC181.full.pdf

The Existence of a Second Vesicular Glutamate Transporter Specifies Subpopulations of Glutamatergic Neurons

Chiral structure of the nucleon

Neurons expressing the m1, m2, and m4 muscarinic receptor genes in the adult rat striatum were identified and characterized by using several in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical procedures. Combined in situ hybridization for the simultaneous detection of two mRNAs in the same section or in adjacent sections as well as in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry on adjacent sections permitted us to identify the neurons containing m1, m2, or m4 receptor mRNA. Our observations demonstrate that m1, m2, and m4 receptor genes are expressed in one or several phenotypically distinct neuronal populations. The m1 receptor gene was the most widely expressed (85% of the striatal neurons). Most cholinergic neurons (80% or more) contain m1, m2, and m4 receptor mRNAs. Almost all the substance P neurons contain m1 and m4 receptor mRNA. All enkephalinergic neurons contained m1 receptor mRNA, but only 39% contained m4 receptor mRNA. Most somatostatin and neurotensin neurons expressed the m1 receptor gene, but only a few (15% and 9%, respectively) contained m4 receptor mRNA. The present study offers anatomical evidence that ACh may act directly in complex ways on the main neuronal populations of the striatum through muscarinic receptors. The m1, m2, and m4 receptors may act as autoreceptors to control ACh release and possibly other parameters of ACh neurons. On the other hand, the m1 and m4 receptors may act as heteroreceptors in cholinoceptive efferent neurons (enkephalin and substance P neurons) and other neurons (somatostatin/neuropeptide Y and neurotensin neurons). The presence of m4 receptor mRNA in only parts of the enkephalin, somatostatin, and neurotensin neuronal populations indicates that muscarinic receptor gene expression contributes to the functional and anatomical heterogeneity of the striatum that may relate to higher order of organization, including patch-matrix compartmentalization. The wide expression of m1 and m4 receptor genes in the striatum suggests that ACh may directly influence neurotransmitter release and synthesis in striatal efferent and intrinsic neurons. Our results imply that the specific pattern of expression of the muscarinic receptor genes mediates direct effects of ACh on activities and functions of chemically and topologically defined striatal neuronal populations. Since the expression of muscarinic receptors occurred in the three main neuronal populations of the striatum, namely ACh, enkephalins, and substance P neurons that also express dopamine receptors, it is highly probable that ACh and dopamine may act together at the single-cell level to influence striatal functions.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/12/9/3591.full.pdf

Véronique Bernard

Papers

Chiral dynamics in nucleons and nuclei

A Third Vesicular Glutamate Transporter Expressed by Cholinergic and Serotoninergic Neurons

The Existence of a Second Vesicular Glutamate Transporter Specifies Subpopulations of Glutamatergic Neurons

Chiral structure of the nucleon

Phenotypical characterization of the rat striatal neurons expressing muscarinic receptor genes