抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

The reduction of graphene oxide

Since the discovery of mechanically exfoliated graphene in 2004, research on ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials has grown exponentially in the fields of condensed matter physics, material science, chemistry, and nanotechnology. Highlighting their compelling physical, chemical, electronic, and optical properties, as well as their various potential applications, in this Review, we summarize the state-of-art progress on the ultrathin 2D nanomaterials with a particular emphasis on their recent advances. First, we introduce the unique advances on ultrathin 2D nanomaterials, followed by the description of their composition and crystal structures. The assortments of their synthetic methods are then summarized, including insights on their advantages and limitations, alongside some recommendations on suitable characterization techniques. We also discuss in detail the utilization of these ultrathin 2D nanomaterials for wide ranges of potential applications among the electronics/optoelectronics, electrocat...

Recent Advances in Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials

Approaches, Derivatives and Applications Vasilios Georgakilas,† Michal Otyepka,‡ Athanasios B. Bourlinos,‡ Vimlesh Chandra, Namdong Kim, K. Christian Kemp, Pavel Hobza,‡,§,⊥ Radek Zboril,*,‡ and Kwang S. Kim* †Institute of Materials Science, NCSR “Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi Attikis, 15310 Athens, Greece ‡Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic Center for Superfunctional Materials, Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31, Hyojadong, Namgu, Pohang 790-784, Korea Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Flemingovo naḿ. 2, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic

Functionalization of Graphene: Covalent and Non-Covalent Approaches, Derivatives and Applications

Graphene has attracted tremendous research interest in recent years, owing to its exceptional properties. The scaled-up and reliable production of graphene derivatives, such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), offers a wide range of possibilities to synthesize graphene-based functional materials for various applications. This critical review presents and discusses the current development of graphene-based composites. After introduction of the synthesis methods for graphene and its derivatives as well as their properties, we focus on the description of various methods to synthesize graphene-based composites, especially those with functional polymers and inorganic nanostructures. Particular emphasis is placed on strategies for the optimization of composite properties. Lastly, the advantages of graphene-based composites in applications such as the Li-ion batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, photovoltaic devices, photocatalysis, as well as Raman enhancement are described (279 references).

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Graphene-based composites

A straightforward one-step chemical method to in situ synthesis of Ag nanoparticles (Ag NPs) on single-layer graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) surfaces is proposed. After simply heating the single-layer GO or r-GO adsorbed on 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)-modified Si/SiOx substrates in a silver nitrate aqueous solution at 75 °C, Ag NPs are synthesized and grow on the GO or r-GO surface. The obtained Ag NPs are investigated by atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Our method is unique and important since no reducing agent is required in the reaction. Au NPs on a GO surface are obtained by simply immersing the obtained Ag NPs on the GO surface in HAuCl4 solution.

In Situ Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles on Single-Layer Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide Surfaces

A direct electrochemical method to reduce single-layer graphene oxide (GO) adsorbed on the 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)-modified conductive electrodes is proposed. The reduced GO adsorbed on glassy carbon electrode was modified with glucose oxidase (GOx) by covalent bonding via a polymer generated by electrografting N-succinimidyl acrylate (NSA). The direct electron transfer between the electrode and GOx molecules was realized. The bioactivity of GOx maintains very well on the electrode. The thus-prepared GOx-modified electrode was successfully used to detect glucose.

Direct Electrochemical Reduction of Single-Layer Graphene Oxide and Subsequent Functionalization with Glucose Oxidase

Monocrystalline ZnO nanorods (NRs) with high donor concentration are electrochemically deposited on highly conductive reduced graphene oxide (rGO) films on quartz. The film thickness, optical transmittance, sheet resistance, and roughness of rGO films are systematically studied. The obtained ZnO NRs on rGO films are characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, photoluminescence, and Raman spectra. As a proof-of-concept application, the obtained ZnO NRs on rGO are used to fabricate inorganic-organic hybrid solar cells with layered structure of quartz/rGO/ZnO NR/poly(3-hexylthiophene)/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (P3HT/PEDOT:PSS)/Au. The observed power conversion efficiency (PCE, eta), approximately 0.31%, is higher than that reported in previous solar cells by using graphene films as electrodes. These results clearly demonstrate that rGO films with a higher conductivity have a smaller work function and show a better performance in the fabricated solar cells.

Electrochemical deposition of ZnO nanorods on transparent reduced graphene oxide electrodes for hybrid solar cells.

Solid gold is usually most stable as a face-centred cubic (fcc) structure. To date, no one has synthesized a colloidal form of Au that is exclusively hexagonal close-packed (hcp) and stable under ambient conditions. Here we report the first in situ synthesis of dispersible hcp Au square sheets on graphene oxide sheets, which exhibit an edge length of 200-500 nm and a thickness of ~ 2.4 nm (~ 16 Au atomic layers). Interestingly, the Au square sheet transforms from hcp to a fcc structure on exposure to an electron beam during transmission electron microscopy analysis. In addition, as the square sheet grows thicker (from ~ 2.4 to 6 nm), fcc segments begin to appear. A detailed experimental analysis of these structures shows that for structures with ultrasmall dimensions (for example, <~ 6 nm thickness for the square sheets), the previously unobserved pure hcp structure becomes stable and isolable.

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Synthesis of hexagonal close-packed gold nanostructures

We report an environment-friendly approach to synthesize transition metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs)/reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets hybrids by combining the reduction of graphene oxide (GO) with the growth of metal oxide NPs in one step. Either Fe2O3 or CoO NPs were grown onto rGO sheets in ethanol solution through a solvothermal process, during which GOs were reduced to rGO without the addition of any strong reducing agent, e.g.hydrazine, or requiring any post-high-temperature annealing process. The GO or rGO during the precipitation of metal oxide NPs may act as heterogeneous nucleation seeds to facilitate the formation of small crystal grains. This may allow more efficient diffusion of Li ions and lead to high specific capacities. These metal oxide NPs–rGO hybrids were used as anodes for Li-ion batteries, which showed high capacities and excellent charge–discharge cycling stability in the voltage window between 0.01 and 3.0 V. For example, Fe2O3 NPs/rGO hybrids showed specific capacity of 881 mA h g−1 in the 90th cycle at a discharge current density of 302 mA g−1 (0.3 C), while CoO NPs/rGO hybrids showed a lower capacity of 600 mA h g−1 in the 90th cycle at a discharge current density of 215 mA g−1 (0.3 C). These nanohybrids also show excellent capacities at high C rate currents, e.g. 611 mA h g−1 for Fe2O3/rGO sample in the 300th cycle at 2014 mA g−1 (2 C). Such synthesis technique can be a promising route to produce advanced electrode materials for Li-ion batteries.

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Xiaozhu Zhou

Papers

In Situ Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles on Single-Layer Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide Surfaces

Direct Electrochemical Reduction of Single-Layer Graphene Oxide and Subsequent Functionalization with Glucose Oxidase

Electrochemical deposition of ZnO nanorods on transparent reduced graphene oxide electrodes for hybrid solar cells.

Synthesis of hexagonal close-packed gold nanostructures

Facile synthesis of metal oxide/reduced graphene oxide hybrids with high lithium storage capacity and stable cyclability