Showing papers in "American Sociological Review in 1984"

Structural Inertia and Organizational Change

Abstract: Considers structural inertia in organizational populations as an outcome of an ecological-evolutionary process. Structural inertia is considered to be a consequence of selection as opposed to a precondition. The focus of this analysis is on the timing of organizational change. Structural inertia is defined to be a correspondence between a class of organizations and their environments. Reliably producing collective action and accounting rationally for their activities are identified as important organizational competencies. This reliability and accountability are achieved when the organization has the capacity to reproduce structure with high fidelity. Organizations are composed of various hierarchical layers that vary in their ability to respond and change. Organizational goals, forms of authority, core technology, and marketing strategy are the four organizational properties used to classify organizations in the proposed theory. Older organizations are found to have more inertia than younger ones. The effect of size on inertia is more difficult to determine. The variance in inertia with respect to the complexity of organizational arrangements is also explored. (SRD)

The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault.

Abstract: The specific deterrence doctrine and labeling theory predict opposite effects of punishment on individual rates of deviance. The limited cross-sectional evidence available on the question is inconsistent, and experimental evidence has been lacking. The Police Foundation and the Minneapolis Police Department tested these hypotheses in a field experiment on domestic violence. Three police responses to simple assault were randomly assigned to legally eligible suspects: an arrest; "advice" (including, in some cases, informal mediation); and an order to the suspect to leave for eight hours. The behavior of the suspect was trackedfor six months after the police intervention, with both official data and victim reports. The official recidivism measures show that the arrested suspects manifested significantly less subsequent violence than those who were ordered to leave. The victim report data show that the arrested subjects manifested significantly less subsequent violence than those who were advised. The findings falsify a deviance amplification model of labeling theory beyond initial labeling, and fail to falsify the specific deterrence prediction for a group of offenders with a high percentage of prior histories of both domestic violence and other kinds of crime.

Mobilization and participation: social-psychological expansions of resource mobilization theory*

Abstract: Resource mobilization theorists have nearly abandoned social-psychological analysis of social movements. In this paper a fresh case is made for social psychology. New insights in psychology are combined with resource mobilization theory in an attempt to overcome the weaknesses of traditional social-psychological approaches to social movements. Expectancy-value theory is applied to movement participation and mobilization. It is assumed that the willingness to participate in a social movement is a function of the perceived costs and benefits of participation. Collective and selective incentives are discussed. Expectations about the behavior of others are introduced as an important expansion of expectancy-value theory to make this framework applicable to movement participation. The theory is applied to mobilization campaigns of the labor movement, and empirically tested in a longitudinal study of a campaign during the 1979 collective negotiations in the Netherlands. Outcomes support the theory. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events.

Abstract: Past research has shown that the emotional impact of undesirable life events is significantly greater among women than men. This finding has ted to speculation that women possess a deficit in coping capacity or in access to social support that renders them pervasively disadvantaged in responding emotionally to problematic situations. We present a different argument in this paper. We hypothesize and then document that women are not pervasively more vulnerable to the effects of undesirable events. A disaggregated analysis of life-event effects shows, further, that female vulnerability is largely conftned to "network" events: life events that do not occur to the focal respondent but to someone in his or her social network who is considered important. Further results are presented to argue that this greater vulnerability is due to the greater emotional involvement of women in the lives of those around them. It is demonstrated that this emotional cost of caring is responsible for a substantial part of the overall relationship between sex and distress. It is well documented that women in Western society have significantly higher rates of psychological distress than men (Al-Issa, 1982). In sociology, most discussions of this fact have revolved around the idea that women" s social roles are more stress provoking and less fulfilling than those occupied by men (Gove, 1978). This social-role explanation has fostered a substantial body of research on sex differences in chronic role-related stress. This work has typically been based on indirect measures of stress. Marital status, numbers and ages of children, and employment status have been used to make inferences about chronic stress (Gove, 1972; Radloff, 1975; Gove and Geerken, 1977; Aneshensel et al., 1981). For example, the sex-distress relationship has been shown to be more pronounced among the married than the previously married or never married (Gove, 1972; Fox, 1980). This specification has been interpreted as evidence that role-related stress and resources are responsi

Regression models with ordinal variables

Abstract: Most discussions of ordinal variables in the sociological literature debate the suitability of linear regression and structural equation methods when some variables are ordinal. Largely ignored in these discussions are methods for ordinal variables that are natural extensions of probit and logit models for dichotomous variables. If ordinal variables are discrete realizations of unmeasured continuous variables, these methods allow one to include ordinal dependent and independent variables into structural equation models in a way that (I) explicitly recognizes their ordinality, (2) avoids arbitrary assumptions about their scale, and (3) allows for analysis of continuous, dichotomous, and ordinal variables within a common statistical framework. These models rely on assumed probability distributions of the continuous variables that underly the observed ordinal variables, but these assumptions are testable. The models can be estimated using a number of commonly used statistical programs. As is illustrated by an empirical example, ordered probit and logit models, like their dichotomous counterparts, take account of the ceiling andfloor restrictions on models that include ordinal variables, whereas the linear regression model does not. Empirical social research has benefited during the past two decades from the application of structural equation models for statistical analysis and causal interpretation of multivariate relationships (e.g., Goldberger and Duncan, 1973; Bielby and Hauser, 1977). Structural equation methods have mainly been applied to problems in which variables are measured on a continuous scale, a reflection of the availability of the theories of multivariate analysis and general linear models for continuous variables. A recurring methodological issue has been how to treat variables measured on an ordinal scale when multiple regression and structural equation methods would otherwise be appropriate tools. Many articles have appeared in this journal (e.g., Bollen and Barb,

Education and intergroup attitudes: Moral enlightenment, superficial democratic commitment, or ideological refinement?

Abstract: enlightened perspective that is less vulnerable to the narrow appeals of intergroup negativism. Other investigators have argued that education increases commitment to democratic norms, but only at a superficial level. We review the arguments from that debate and then subject them to empirical test with national survey data on the intergroup beliefs, feelings, predispositions for personal contact, and policy orientations of men toward women, of whites toward blacks, and of the nonpoor toward the poor. The results of that comprehensive analysis fail to support the view either that education produces liberation from intergroup negativism or that it produces a superficial democratic commitment. With that ascertained, we depart from the confines of past debate and propose afresh approach that rests on different assumptions about the nature of both intergroup attitudes and educational institutions. We argue that dominant social groups routinely develop ideologies that legitimize and justify the status quo, and the well-educated members of these dominant groups are the most sophisticated practitioners of their group's ideology. We interpret our data from this perspective and suggest that the well educated are but one step ahead of their peers in developing a defense of their interests that rests on qualification, individualism, obfuscation, and symbolic concessions. The large, lasting, and diverse good effects on values found in this study, coupled with the very large, pervasive, and enduring effects in heightening knowledge, receptivity to knowledge, and information-seeking documented in our earlier study, establish that formal education has long been an important force throughout America in molding character as well as intellect. Hyman and Wright, Education's Lasting Influence on Values (1979:61)

"Why Not Equal Protection?": Explaining the Politics of Public Social Spending in Britain, 1900-1911 and the United States, 1880s-1920

Abstract: Britain was a pioneer in launching a modern welfare state. Before World War I, it instituted workers’ compensation, old age pensions, health insurance, and the world’s first compulsory system of unemployment insurance. By the end of the nineteenth century, the United States had expanded Civil War pensions into de facto old age and disability pensions for many working- and middle-class Americans. However, during the Progressive Era, as the Civil War generation died off, the United States failed to institute modern pensions and social insurance. Conventional theories of welfare-state development–theories emphasizing industrialization, liberal values, and demands by the organized industrial working class–cannot sufficiently account for these contrasting British and U.S. patterns. Instead, a macropolitical explanation is developed. By the early twentieth century, Britain had a strong civil service and competing, programmatically oriented political parties. Patronage politics had been overcome, and political leaders and social elites were willing to use social spending as a way to appeal to working-class voters. However, the contemporary United States lacked an established civil bureaucracy and was embroiled in the efforts of Progressive reformers to create regulatory agencies and policies free of the “political corruption” of nineteenth-century patronage democracy. Modern social-spending programs were neither governmentally feasible nor politically acceptable at this juncture in U.S. political history.

"if you don't do it, nobody else will": active and token contributors to local collective action*

Abstract: It is commonly assumed that people participate more in collective action when they believe others will. But local activists often say: "I did it because nobody else would." Investigation of the differences among 1456 Detroit residents who were nonmembers, token members, or active members (either currently active or past leaders) of their neighborhood associations reveals that active members were significantly more pessimistic than token members about the prospects for neighborhood collective action, a finding explained by recent theoretical work on collective action by Oliver et al. (1984). Other findings are that active members are more highly educated than token members; that past leaders know more people and have higher interest in local problems; and that currently active members have more close ties in the neighborhood, like the neighborhood less, and are less likely to be homeowners. Contrasts between members and nonmembers are similar to those found in previous research.

Changing Conceptions of Race: Toward an Account of Anomalous Findings of Sentencing Research

Abstract: Theories based on static and simplistic conceptions of the social significance of race fail to account for anomalous research findings and confuse our understanding of race-related outcomes. To substantiate this argument, an analysis is presented of the effects of changing conceptions of race and drugs on sentencing outcomes during a modern anti-drug crusade. This crusade involved a compromise between conservative and liberal impulses in which "big dealers" were identified as villains, while middle-class youth and nonwhites (but the latter only insofar as they were rarely big dealers in a racially stratified drug trade) were reconceived as victims. The results of our contextualized analysis allow us to make sense of otherwise anomalous findings and suggest that while there may be a trend toward equality in American criminal sentencing, there are also patterns of differential leniency and severity that can only be revealed when changing conceptions of race and crime are taken into account.

Economic sources of homicide: reestimating the effects of poverty and inequality.

Abstract: A tradition of research has consistently found that poverty is a major economic source of homicide. Two studies have recently presented findings that call this research tradition into question. The studies are reviewed, and it is argued that these contradictory findings are the result of an incorrect specification of the relationship between poverty and the homicide rate. Revised estimates of the effect of poverty are reported which show that it is a significant positive predictor of the homicide rate for a sample of SMSAs (N=125) when the nonlinearform of the relationship is taken into account. That effect, however, appears to vary by the regional location of SMSAs, that is, whether they are in the South or non-South. The implications of the findings for economic and subcultural explanations of homicide are briefly discussed.

Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency: a reconsideration*

Abstract: In most sociological treatments of crime and delinquency, genetic explanations are either ignored or ridiculed. While the belief that single genetic defects produce delinquent behavior is untenable, modern genetic theory is concerned with the influence of many genes on normal human behavioral variation. This analysis of genetic variation can be united with sociological theory. In particular, a twin study of the covariation between delinquent behavior and association with delinquent peers is used to demonstrate the value of a behavioral genetic analysis for developing social theory. The phenotypic correlation between self-reported "delinquency" and the "delinquency of friends" is apportioned to three theoretical sources: genetic variation; common environmental influences that affect family members equally; and specific environmental influences that affect each individual uniquely. Of the three component sources, genetic factors contributed most to the phenotypic covariation in this study. Although genetic factors are implicated, this result does not mean that delinquency is either a direct result of biological differences or that it is inevitable. Rather, it shows that causal sequences leading to delinquency are traceable to individual differences in genes, so any social causation entails either individual differences in reactions to social processes or differential social reactions to already differing individuals. Implications of behavioral genetic analyses of covariation for theories of delinquency are discussed.

Comparative social mobility revisited: models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries*

Abstract: This paper reanalyzes 3-stratum intergenerational mobility classifications, assembled by Hazelrigg and Garnier for men in 16 countries in the 1960s and 1970s. Log-linear and log-multiplicative models are used to compare mobility regimes and to estimate effects of industrialization, educational enrollment, social democracy, and income inequality on immobility and other parameters of the mobility process. Several models of mobility fit the data equally well, so criteria of plausibility and parsimony are applied to choose one model of stratum-specific immobility and another model of vertical mobility with uniform immobility. We find substantial similarity in mobility and immobility across countries, but the exogenous variables do explain systematic differences among countries. Cross-national variations are complex because most of the exogenous variables have different effects on different parameters of the mobility regime. Relative to other factors, industrialization and education have weaker effects on mobility regimes than has usually been supposed.

Small is bountiful: labor markets and establishment size*

Abstract: Although there exist no detailed published studies on trends in workplace size, most research in stratification and industrial sociology has operated with the implicit assumption that, in the course of the twentieth century, workers have found themselves in increasingly larger establishments. This assumption has focused considerable attention on such concomitants of the assumed increase as growth in bureaucratic control and internal labor markets. This paper gives thefirst systematic empirical account of the evolution of workplace size, and presents results that call into question the appropriateness of the current allocation of research energy. It is suggested that far more attention be paid to analysis of small firms and establishments. It is well known that one of the major changes in the organization of work during the twentieth century has been the shift from small to large employers. In Contested Terrain, Edwards (1979:vii) notes that seventy-five or a hundred years ago, "nearly all employees worked for small firms, while today large numbers toil for the giant corporations." From the theory of segmented labor markets we know that the internal labor market in the large company has become an increasingly standard locale for intragenerational mobility, and that, as Thurow points out, the need for on-the-job training leads employers to eliminate competition for jobs among those who must train one another; the "net result is the formation of a series of internal labor markets with limited ports of entry" (Thurow, 1975:85-86). Dunlop (1966:32) observes, in a similar vein, that for the "typical enterprise, hiring-in jobs are only a small fraction of the total number of job classifications." The forces that have brought about this transformation of the workplace have been extensively documented. Advances in technology have facilitated increasingly large operations with corresponding scale

Women's Educational Attainment and the Timing of Entry into Parenthood.

Abstract: Previous research on the relationship between women's educational attainment and the timing of entry into parenthood has produced conflicting results. Although studies have consistently found that educational attainment has a delaying effect on entry into parenthood, there has been disagreement about the existence of a reciprocal effect of the timing of entry into parenthood on educational attainment. This paper attempts to resolve that disagreement by analyzing the relationship between women's educational attainment and the timing of entry into parenthood in a way that builds upon and goes beyond earlier studies. Considerable attention is focused on methodological issues bearing on the modeling and estimation of these effects. The analysis, based on data from a fifteen-year follow-up study of high school students originally surveyed in 1957-58 and resurveyed in 1973-74, indicates that the timing of entry into parenthood does have an effect on the educational attainment of women.

Unemployment and criminal involvement: an investigation of reciprocal causal structures.

Abstract: Current etiological theories of criminal behavior are unidirectional in structure; positing that crime is caused by a variety of social factors, these theories tend to ignore the reciprocal causal influence of crime on those factors. The present paper assesses the theoretical and empirical consequences associated with unidirectional explanations of criminal involvement. Using a linear panel model approach, it also examines the advantages of reciprocal causal structures by estimating a nonrecursive model of the relationship between crime and one other variable, unemployment. Results indicate that a reciprocal model is far more accurate than a traditional, unidirectional one; unemployment and crime appear to mutually influence one another over the individual's life span. Implications of these findings for etiological theories of criminal behavior are discussed.

Gender and parenthood.

Abstract: This chapter examines several demographic trends relevant to parenthood in individual lives and to the social ambiance surrounding childbearing and rearing in contemporary society. A good starting place for understanding change in gender and parenting roles is several demographic trends: Longevity and the sex ration, marriage and fertility, and household composition. The chapter reviews gender differences in parenting as reflected in recent research on traditional and nontraditional family arrangements and the effect of significant male investment in parenting for child outcome. It then assesses the adequacy of current explanations of gender differences in parenting and demonstrates the relevance of an expanded explanatory model that draws upon bioevolutionary theory and the neurosciences. Three types of research permit a close-up view of what it is that men do when they carry primary child-care responsibility and how they differ from the more traditional circumstance of women carrying this responsibility. They are solo fathers, men in nontraditional family circumstances, and men in intact marriages.

The Rise of Ethnicity: Determinants of Ethnic Perceptions among Cuban Exiles in Miami.

Abstract: This paper traces the evolution of perceptions of social distance and discrimination by the host society among members of a recently arrived foreign minority. Determinants of these perceptions suggested by three alternative hypotheses in this area are reviewed and their effects compared empirically. The data come from a longitudinal studyof adult male Cuban exiles interviewed at the time of arrival in the United States and again three and six years later. Results suggest a significant rise in perceptions of social distance and discrimination from low initial levels and a consistent association of such perceptions with variables suggested by the ethnic resilience perspective. In particular, findings from a series of logistic regressions converge with recent events in South Florida to demonstrate the significance of interethnic contact and competition in the development of ethnic awareness. Theoretical implications of these results and their bearing on the analysis of differences between labor immigrants and political refugees are discussed.

Imitation and suicide: A reexamination of the Werther effect.

Abstract: The study reexamines Phillips's findings regarding the linkage between the appearance of news stories on prominent suicides and the subsequent monthly rise of national suicides-the Werther effect. Extending Phillips's original data set to 1977, and employing the quasi-experimental method, it is found that stories on prominent suicides are likely to trigger a subsequent rise in national suicides. However, this rise may be related to the linkage of suicide with the business cycle, and the fact that more prominent suicides may occur in years when there is a downturn in the economy. This study analyzes suicide rate data with a multivariate time-series model and controls for seasonal effects, the average duration of unemployment and war. No significant linkage is found between the national suicide rate and stories on prominent suicides on the front page of the New York Times. Employing Boorstin's definition of celebrities, the prominent suicides on the front page of the New York Times between 1947 and 1977 are differentiated as celebrity and noncelebrity suicides. Examining only celebrity suicides, it is found that a significant rise in the national suicide rate occurs in the month after a celebrity commits suicide. Suicidal imitation by the public is more selective than originally hypothesized by Phillips.

Family origins and the schooling process: early versus late influence of parental characteristics*

Abstract: This paper explores the potential role of family socioeconomic factors in school achievement outcomes at two separate periods in the lifecourse-early in childhood and during late adolescence. Using data from an 18-year longitudinal study of families and their children which provides measures of parental socioeconomic characteristics across this entire period, we examine several issues related to the influence of early and late family factors on achievement outcomes assessed during the period of the completion of secondary schooling. We examine the extent to which differing conclusions are reached through the use of parental socioeconomic variables assessed during these two periods, and we explore the question of the relative impact of these two sets of influences. Our results indicate that, in part due to the intertemporal consistency of some socioeconomic variables, most relationships are quite similar using either the early or later variables. While these patterns make it very difficult in some instances to ascertain the relative effects of early and late socioeconomic factors, our analytic results point to a potentially stronger role of early socioeconomic factors in cognitive development and school learning. In a single instance-the case offamily size-we find independent effects on school achievement from both early and late socioeconomic experiences. A central theme in the literature on social stratification, from classical sociological writ

Welfare capitalism and the social security act of 1935

Abstract: A central concern of political theorists has been the relationship between the state and the economy, or more specifically, how political power gets translated into economic power. Recent debates have been shaped around critiques of the corporate liberal thesis, which contends that class-conscious capitalists manipulate the polity so that government comes to pursue policies favorable to capitalism. Alternative theories suggest that the state is capable of transcending the demands or interests of any particular social group or class. The Social Security Act of 1935, which represented the beginning of the welfare state in the United States, was a conservative measure that tied social insurance benefits to labor force participation and left administration of its public assistance programs to the states. In this paper the Social Security Act is used as a case study to adjudicate between several competing theories of the state. The analysis demonstrates that the state functions as a mediating body, weighing the priorities of various interest groups with unequal access to power, negotiating compromises between class factions, and incorporating working-class demands into legislation on capitalist terms. A central concern of political theorists has been the relationship between the state and the economy, or more specifically, how economic power gets translated into political power. Recent debates have been shaped around critiques of the corporate liberal thesis, which stresses the strategies of class-conscious capitalists to manipulate the polity. Alternative theories suggest that the state is capable of transcending the demands or interests of any particular social group or class. The core agenda of those espousing some variant of corporate liberalism has been to explain how major economic interests manipulated the polity in the twentieth century, so that government came to pursue policies favorable to capitalism (Domhoff, 1979; Kolko, 1963; O'Connor, 1973; Useem, 1983). According to this perspective, capitalists rationally pursued a series of policies designed to allow them control of the political process, resulting in a synthesis of politics and economics. For example, Kolko (1963) has argued that the regulatory "reforms" of the Progressive Era, traditionally explained as a respose to muckraker's criticism, were actually desired by large industry as a way, not only of controlling

Intergenerational Support Activities and Well-Being among the Elderly: A Convergence of Exchange and Symbolic Interaction Perspectives.

Abstract: Exchange and symbolic interaction perspectives recognize that individuals actively appraise and assess situations; that expectations and benefits derive their meanings from definitions of the situation and past experiences; and that interactions are not fixed and predetermined but open to negotiation and change. The application of this shared orientation to the intergenerational family role suggests that social background and related roles, subjective meanings and self-feelings, as well as exchange processes influence the interaction of adult children and their elderly parents. Data are derived from a national sample of elderly widows and married persons. Findings include: (I) marital status creates differences in the character and importance of the intergenerational role; (2) the subjective significance attributed to adult children is a major factor which influences patterns of intergenerational interaction; and (3) exchange patterns appear to be more important in influencing the self-feelings of widows than married persons.

The organization of work in a segmented economy

Abstract: Stratification researchers have increasingly embraced segmentation perspectives, dividing industries into groups believed to exhibit different work arrangement and opportunity structures. Previous research, however, indicates only limited support for those predictions. This paper assesses the utility of segmentation approaches by conceptualizing and measuring sectors organizationally, rather than among industries. Center and periphery enterprises are distinguished along two interrelated dimensions: the complexity of their organizational forms (size, structure, and technology) and the degree of market power or environmental dominance. These dimensions are operationalized and tested in analyses of more than 400 work organizations. Our formulation captures predicted organizational differences in work and opportunity. For example, as hypothesized, establishments that are high on these dimensions rely more on internal career ladders and the proliferation ofjob titles. While coarse taxonomies of economic segmentation may accurately represent the economic extremes, however, they obscure the diversity of enterprises between those extremes. Stratification and work arrangements can be better understood by analyzing their specific organizational and environmental determinants.

Occupational Mobility of Black Men: 1962-1973

Abstract: William Julius Wilson argues that the gains in employment and occupational status that blacks made during the 1960s bred class cleavages that did not exist within the black population prior to 1960. This paper presents a new analysis of data on interand intragenerational mobility of black menfrom the OCG surveys of 1962 and 1973 that supports Wilson's argument. Three important class effects of the type hypothesized by Wilson arefound. First, class effects on intragenerational mobility between 1962 and 1973 were significantfor blacks; these class effects were similar to class effects among whites. Second, class differences in intergenerational mobility increased between 1962 and 1973. Finally, upward mobility between 1962 and 1973 was greatest among men from the most advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds. The analysis also reveals an important role for public-sector employment in both occupational upgrading among black men and the emergence of class cleavages within the black population. The public sector provided more highand middle-status occupations for black men than did the private sector. On the other hand, the public sector was more selective in recruiting blacks from middle class and skilled manual backgrounds than was the private sector.

Parental Status and Child's Home Ownership

Abstract: This paper explores the relation of parents' status to their children's home ownership. Home ownership by parents increases the probability of a child's home ownership. Parents' income is positively associated with the value of children's homes among owners, though it has no effect on probability of ownership. The effect of parents' income on home value is mediated by the level of gifts among black households and by parents' home value among whites. It is argued that gifts may measure direct aid and parental home value may measure a young person's expectations concerning appropriate housing standards. Data are from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics.

Legal Control of the Southern Civil Rights Movement.

Abstract: Debate over the potential power of social movements has focused on the Southern civil rights experience. This debate has neglected, however, the use of the Southern legal system to harass the civil rights movement. This paper identifies two forms of white response-legalistic and violent-to black protest, and examines their impact on major protest campaigns in several Southern communities. In cities where white officials used legal means and avoided violence, civil rights forces were defeated, underscoring the weaknesses of the movement in the face of such legal control. Final remarks discuss implications for the debate addressed by this paper.

Boomtown's youth: the differential impacts of rapid community growth on adolescents and adults*

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