Showing papers in "Building Research and Information in 2010"

Smart metering: what potential for householder engagement?

Abstract: The argument for the implementation of ‘smart’ metering, which is an elastic term, varies according to circumstance and place. In some countries, the business case for establishing an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) relies in part on improving consumption feedback to customers and assisting in the transition to lower-impact energy systems. There is an expectation that AMI will lead to reductions in both the demand and the cost to serve customers through improved communication, but little evidence exists to show overall demand reduction. To what extent might smart meters improve the prospects for customer engagement? To assess this question, end-user perceptions and practices must be considered along with metering hardware and economics. Using the theory of affordances, qualitative research is examined to understand how householders have used consumption feedback, with and without smart meters. Although AMI offers possibilities for household energy management and customer–utility relations, there is...

Residential heat comfort practices: understanding users

Abstract: The user-centred approach to heat consumption in housing is a highly relevant, but often neglected, aspect of residential energy consumption. The practice–theory approach is presented as a development within the socio-technical approach. A detailed analysis of empirical evidence from different households living in similar buildings in a suburb of Copenhagen, Denmark, shows significant variation in energy consumption due to different usage patterns of both the house and its heating system. An analysis using practice–theory finds that technologies, embodied habits, knowledge, and meanings are the main components in the understanding of both what holds this practice together as a collectively shared practice and the different socio-material configurations of each of the individual households. Un aspect hautement pertinent, mais souvent neglige, de la consommation energetique residentielle consiste en une approche de la consommation de chauffage dans les logements axee sur l'utilisateur. L'approche, basee sur...

Low-energy dwellings: the contribution of behaviours to actual performance

Abstract: The UK Government's Building a Greener Future: Policy Statement (2007) announced that all new homes must be zero carbon from 2016. To date, a number of housing sites around the UK have strived to reduce carbon emissions by following sustainable design principles and utilizing renewable technologies. On paper, these sites exceed regulatory compliance and are regarded as high-performance buildings. However, their actual performance is seldom validated from the perspective of either the design engineer or the occupants. Findings are presented from an on-going post-occupancy evaluation of a UK EcoHomes site with an ‘excellent’ rating (the highest rating of the predecessor to the current standard, the Code for Sustainable Homes). The detailed post-occupancy evaluation investigated the energy performance of the buildings (as well as water consumption) and the comfort and satisfaction of users. A bespoke behavioural survey and interview were developed and implemented to distinguish between and quantify frugal an...

Building evaluation: practice and principles

Abstract: Based on experiences of carrying out building-performance studies in non-domestic buildings in the United Kingdom and around the world, the question is addressed of how these might apply in the eme...

Targeting household energy efficiency measures using sensitivity analysis

Abstract: The Community Domestic Energy Model (CDEM) has been developed to explore potential routes to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the model is used to predict the CO2 emissions of the existing English housing stock. The average dwelling CO2 emissions are estimated as 5827 kgCO2 per year, of which space heating accounts for 53%, water heating for 20%, cooking for 5%, and lights and appliance for 22%. Local sensitivity analysis is undertaken for dwellings of different age and type to investigate the effect on predicted emissions of uncertainty in the model's inputs. High normalized sensitivity coefficients were calculated for parameters that affect the space heating energy use. The effects of the input uncertainties were linear and superposable, so the impact of multiple uncertainties could be easily determined. The results show that the accumulated impact on national CO2 emissions of the underperformance of energy-efficiency measures could be very large. Quality control of the complete energy system i...

Occupants' behaviour: determinants and effects on residential heating consumption

Abstract: What are the key determinants and effects of occupants' behaviour on energy use for space heating? Statistical analyses were carried out on energy use and self-reported behaviour data from a household survey in the Netherlands. Results showed that the number of usage hours for the heating system have a stronger effect on energy consumption than temperature setting. Small correlations were found between energy use and the ventilation system, since most households barely use the ventilation system. The main building characteristic determining behaviour is the type of temperature control. Households with a programmable thermostat were more likely to keep the radiators turned on for more hours than households with a manual thermostat or manual valves on radiators. In relation to household characteristics, the presence of elderly persons in the household proved to be a determining factor in the use of the heating system and ventilation. As a result of wide variations in preferences and lifestyle, occupant behaviour has emerged as an important contributor to energy use in dwellings. The results indicate that the type of heating and ventilation system has an influence on occupant behaviour.

Home energy monitors : Impact over the medium-term

Abstract: Home Energy Management Systems (HEMS), e.g. energy monitors, are intermediary products that can visualize, manage, and/or monitor the energy use of other products or whole households. HEMS increasingly receive attention for their role in energy conservation in households. A literature review and a case study examine the mid-term effectiveness (more than 4 months) of HEMS. The case study presents the results of a 15-month pilot with a domestic energy monitor in the Netherlands. It explores the extent to which participants manage to sustain their initial electricity savings over time, with a special focus on the development of habitual energy-saving behaviour. The results show that the initial savings in electricity consumption of 7.8% after 4 months could not be sustained in the medium- to long-term. A second finding is that certain groups of people seem more receptive to energy-saving interventions than others. These participants quickly develop new habits and exhibit larger savings than other participants. Obviously, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach for home energy monitors cannot be justified. For HEMS to be effective, a deeper understanding is needed that embraces social science, contextual factors, usability, and interaction design research.

Central heating thermostat settings and timing: building demographics

Abstract: Crucial empirical data (currently absent in building energy models) on central heating demand temperatures and durations are presented. These data are derived from the first national survey of energy use in English homes and includes monitored temperatures in living rooms, central heating settings reported by participants, along with building, technical, and behavioural data. The results are compared with model assumptions with respect to thermostat settings and heating durations. Contrary to assumptions, the use of controls did not reduce average maximum living room temperatures or the duration of operation. Regulations, policies, and programmes may need to revise their assumptions that adding controls will reduce energy use. Alternative forms of heating control should be developed and tested to ascertain whether their use saves energy in real-world settings. Given the finding that detached houses are heated for longer, these dwellings should be particularly targeted in energy-efficiency retrofit program...

Evaluating housing performance in relation to human behaviour: new challenges

Abstract: In 2001, in a previous issue of this journal, Sir Andrew Derbyshire wrote: How do we persuade the industry at large that POE [post-occupancy evaluation] is doable and worthwhile? (Derbyshire, 2001,

Ethnographic methodologies for construction research: knowing, practice and interventions

Abstract: Ethnographic methodologies developed in social anthropology and sociology hold considerable promise for addressing practical, problem-based research concerned with the construction site. The extended researcher-engagement characteristic of ethnography reveals rich insights, yet is infrequently used to understand how workplace realities are lived out on construction sites. Moreover, studies that do employ these methods are rarely reported within construction research journals. This paper argues that recent innovations in ethnographic methodologies offer new routes to: posing questions; understanding workplace socialities (i.e. the qualities of the social relationships that develop on construction sites); learning about forms, uses and communication of knowledge on construction sites; and turning these into meaningful recommendations. This argument is supported by examples from an interdisciplinary ethnography concerning migrant workers and communications on UK construction sites. The presented research seeks to understand how construction workers communicate with managers and each other and how they stay safe on site, with the objective of informing site health-and-safety strategies and the production and evaluation of training and other materials.

Resourcing challenges for post-disaster housing reconstruction: a comparative analysis

Abstract: Post-disaster housing reconstruction is likely to suffer project deficiencies in relation to the availability of resources. Inefficiencies in dealing with resource shortages in the aftermath of a catastrophe can trigger economic and environmental impacts on the affected areas. Based on data collected from field research in China, Indonesia, and Australia, three types of resource-led reconstruction strategies are compared: government driven, donor driven, and market driven. Conventional interventions from the Chinese government (e.g. price restrictions and discouraging profiteering to regulate the market) were unable to meet the long-term reconstruction needs after the Wenchuan earthquake (2008). Complexity inherent in both internal and external environments in Indonesia compromised donors' efforts in post-tsunami (2004) resource procurement. Market-oriented resourcing processes in Australian bushfire (2009) reconstruction are unlikely to succeed without facilitated solutions from the government and instit...

Carbon reduction in existing buildings: a transdisciplinary approach

Abstract: Clear policy mandates as a response to climate change are emerging in many countries around the world. The UK is one of many that are actively pursuing a national policy of substantial carbon emiss...

Energy efficiency interventions in housing: learning from the inhabitants

Abstract: Technological solutions to domestic energy reduction are insufficient without the cooperation of inhabitants. It does not matter how much energy hypothetically could be saved by efficient technologies if no one wants to live in the properties, install or use efficient lighting and heating. Therefore, to improve the uptake and effectiveness of household energy-efficiency interventions, it is necessary to understand ‘why people react to particular energy-efficiency interventions in the ways they do?’ An analysis is presented of in-depth interviews with 50 inhabitants who participated in one of four domestic energy-efficiency interventions. The findings indicate that issues such as aesthetic tastes and effects on lifestyle are central to why people reject economically viable, simple and well-understood domestic energy-efficiency interventions. Les solutions technologiques a la reduction de la consommation d'energie domestique ne peuvent suffire s'il n'y a pas de cooperation de la part des habitants. Peu impo...

Challenges for energy and buildings research: objectives, methods and funding mechanisms

Abstract: This commentary reflects on a series of strategic questions facing the energy and buildings research community and research funding bodies in the UK. These include the problems of research capacity and funding, the need to find a new balance between competition and cooperation between research groups, and a need for a renewed focus on the empirical performance of buildings. The authors argue that conventional distinctions between research, development and the deployment of technologies are inappropriate for the built environment. A wider range of approaches to research is needed to enable researchers to engage more effectively with stakeholders throughout the research, development, and deployment process, to reduce the distinction between research and knowledge transfer, and to reduce the length of learning cycles. Without such developments, there is a risk that the energy and buildings research community will be reduced to commenting on accelerating developments in the real world and, at the same time, a...

Understanding occupants: feedback techniques for large-scale low-carbon domestic refurbishments

Abstract: How can occupant feedback methods inform the management and design of low-carbon and whole-house refurbishment of dwellings? This is particularly relevant for large-scale, whole-house refurbishment programmes tasked with achieving deep cuts in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Evidence from pre-refurbishment occupancy can influence which interventions are chosen and increase their efficacy. A critical review is undertaken of a portfolio of short- and long-term occupant feedback techniques for evaluating occupants' perception of comfort, satisfaction, behaviour, and expectations. A number of these occupant feedback techniques are then tested empirically at the pre-refurbishment stage for two discrete case-study house types as part of ongoing research. The evidence reveals wide gaps between modelled and actual energy consumption; poor indoor CO2 and daylight levels, low operating internal temperatures, as well as problematic noise transmission. Such findings influence the selection of suitable user-centred lo...

Dynamics of urban and rural housing stocks in China

Abstract: The massive migration flows from rural to urban areas in China, combined with an expected decline in the total population over the next decades, leads to two important challenges for China's housing: the growth of its urban housing stock and the shrinkage of rural housing. The rural and urban housing systems in China were analyzed using a dynamic material flow analysis model for the period 1900–2100 for several scenarios assuming different development paths for population, urbanization, housing demand per capita, and building lifetime. The simulation results indicate that new housing construction is likely to decline for several decades due to the fast growth over the past 30 years and the expected increased longevity of dwellings. Such an oscillation of new construction activity would have significant implications for the construction industry, employment, raw material demand, and greenhouse gas emissions to produce the construction materials. Policy and practical options for mitigating the negative impa...

Developing occupancy feedback from a prototype to improve housing production

Abstract: An occupancy feedback strategy is proposed that takes account of the ‘interactive adaptivity’ that occurs between occupants and their physical home. This relationship is examined for how it affects building performance and resource use. Existing feedback methods are evaluated and several new variants introduced. Design assumptions about the usability of control interfaces were explored in relation to actual occupant behaviour. The evaluation of a single-prototype ‘zero-carbon’ house built as a demonstration and test site with periodic occupancy indicates the significance of understanding occupant behaviour at the design stage and communicating operational issues to occupants at the handover stage. Methods used cover fabric performance, initial information and training given to occupants, energy and water use, window-opening activity, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, functionality, and occupant behaviour. Each contributing method is discussed in terms of its findings, effectiveness, and relationship wi...

Two models for benchmarking UK domestic delivered energy

Abstract: From publicly available data, two simple models are developed to help identify the trajectory of total delivered energy to UK households and provide benchmarks for the UK domestic sector. Both models can help to inform policy-makers and the public whether delivered energy in the domestic sector is on track and whether the reductions correspond with the expected impact of a more efficient domestic sector. The annual delivered energy, price, and temperature (ADEPT) model uses multiple linear regression to fit consumption data since 1970 (R 2 = 0.76). Findings indicate that with typical recent heating season temperatures of 7°C and at 2005 energy prices, average household delivered energy is estimated at 21.7 MWh (95% confidence interval = 20.8, 22.6). For every 1°C increase in heating season temperature, average household delivered energy drops by approximately 1 MWh/year. Energy price elasticity is estimated at –0.2, so that a 50% rise in energy prices corresponds to an approximate 10% decline in energy de...

Evaluating design strategies, performance and occupant satisfaction: a low carbon office refurbishment

Abstract: Existing buildings present the best opportunity for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in developed economies, given that only 2–3% of the building stock is newly built each year. Insights from a post-occupancy evaluation of a large-scale refurbishment project of a head office building in Sydney, Australia, are presented to inform future refurbishment strategies. The study evaluates occupant satisfaction and energy performance, and elicits influencing factors arising from the design process and interventions, ongoing building management, and operational performance. Occupants returned a high level of satisfaction across the range of environmental variables for overall comfort, temperature, lighting, and air quality as well as perceived productivity and health. These outcomes highlight the importance of improving indoor environmental quality for occupants particularly through increased fresh air, daylight, glare control, access to views, and noise management. The positive results reinforce the value of an i...

Building human agency: a timely manifesto

Abstract: The 2009 Passive and Low Energy Architecture Conference (PLEA), held in Quebec City, Canada, was themed ‘Architecture, Energy and the Occupant's Perspective’, with the ambition of positioning building inhabitants as key ‘active’ determinants of energy performance in ‘passive’ design through adaptive opportunities. Conference delegates committed to a Manifesto that embodied both the key longstanding priorities of PLEA and explicitly conveyed the priorities of the conference hosts. The Manifesto is examined in terms of how it captures and represents a shift in thinking that has occurred over the past few years, away from technological and technocratic solutions to comfort provisioning and towards reframing building energy consumption as a social and ethical challenge in which comfort plays a key role. La Conference 2009 sur l'Architecture Passive et Basse Energie (PLEA), qui s'est tenue a Quebec, au Canada, avait pour theme « Architecture, Energie et la Perspective de l'Occupant », avec pour ambition de pos...

Energy in New Zealand houses: comfort, physics and consumption

Abstract: The Household Energy End-use Study (HEEP) quantified how, where, when, and why energy was used in New Zealand houses based on the monitoring of energy and end-uses in a national sample of 400 houses. Based on these data, space heating was found to average 34% of total household energy use. Three issues are highlighted in relation to space heating: firstly, the extent to which low indoor temperatures are associated with persistent under-heating; secondly, whether some space-heating sources tend to be associated with higher (or lower) winter indoor temperatures than others; and thirdly, what the drivers of under-heating might be. An overview of the HEEP research and its complex data set is provided. The range of winter indoor temperatures are then compared with international benchmarks and established healthy temperature ranges. Occupants’ perceptions of winter indoor temperature conditions are presented and explored in relation to heating patterns and household energy consumption. The impacts of this resea...

Domestic energy use, lifestyles and POE: past lessons for current problems

Abstract: Many research and demonstration projects in the 1970s showed it was not difficult to make houses with a much lower energy use than conventional ones. Some of these projects also included autonomous systems, such as collecting and using rainwater and growing food on site. These projects not only recognized clear limits, but also translated into consumption restraints for occupants which positively affected their behaviour. However, these ideas failed to become mainstream. This resulted in houses in many developed countries becoming more energy efficient, but, paradoxically, the demands for increased floor area and amenity suggested that what users actually want is more rather than fewer resources. Building regulations to save energy have been outweighed, in terms of resources consumed, by other consumer-led moves. Seminal ideas and projects from the 1970s for the design of low-energy, autonomous houses are re-evaluated showing where resource reductions through synergy of lifestyle activities can be made. P...

Comfort and energy use in five Australian award-winning houses: regulated, measured and perceived

Abstract: Building regulations in Australia and elsewhere are increasingly directed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving an efficient use of energy and water. These regulations significantly impact on aspirations with regard to the building design. Five case study houses recognized in awards from the Australian Institute of Architects are investigated for whether they met the aim and criteria of the relevant regulations for energy efficiency and greenhouse gas reductions. Qualitative and quantitative issues surrounding their environmental performance are examined, including occupants' comfort and energy consumption. The findings suggest that the assessment processes underpinning the regulations do not correlate well with measured environmental performance, the perceptions of occupiers, and how these houses are actually designed and operated. The regulatory concept of ‘meeting generic needs’ fails to account for the diversity of socio-cultural understandings, the inhabitants' expectations and their beh...

Changes in energy demand from low-energy homes

Abstract: To measure change in energy demand, a follow-up study was conducted in 2005–2007 of 36 ‘low-energy’ UK dwellings that were originally monitored for hourly energy consumption between 1989 and 1991. All results were compared under standardized daily external winter conditions of 5°C. Overall, no significant evidence of change over 15–17 years was found in average gas consumption (67 kWh/day, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) = 55, 79) and average electricity usage (14 kWh/day; 95% CI = 11, 18). Dwellings were then classified into low, middle, and high groups according to energy usage in 1990. Gas usage of the high group at follow-up was 107 kWh/day (95% CI = 89, 125) in 2005–2007, and was consistent with increased floor space, but electricity consumption increased by 72% to 24 kWh/day (95% CI = 18, 30). The high group comprised dwellings that were both larger originally than in the other groups and they were more likely to have been extended. These results are broadly consistent with national statistics t...

Longitudinal analysis of energy metering data from non-domestic buildings

Abstract: To identify, understand and reduce energy wastage in buildings, a significant indicator is time patterns of consumption linked to building occupancy. Advanced metering can log energy data at short half-hourly intervals or less. However, analysis of these data may still often follow traditional monitoring and targeting techniques developed previously for daily or weekly energy data. To explore the potential for advanced metering more fully, and to understand the energy consumption patterns and energy wastage in non-domestic buildings, a longitudinal study was made of energy data collected from approximately 300 buildings in Leicester, UK, between 2001 and 2008. This was the first such study of its kind. Evidence was gathered from gas, electricity and water meters, with water consumption being used as a proxy for building occupancy. Algorithms for cleaning the data are described. Four principal building failure modes for gas space heating were identified that cause excessive and wasteful energy consumption. In 2004, 34% of buildings were heated during unoccupied periods at weekends, although this reduced to 22% by 2008. Longitudinal analysis of night-time electricity baseloads showed an average annual rate of increase of around 8%, although wide variations exist between buildings. The method of identifying building control phenomena may be applied to any metered energy data set with a comparable sampling period. Les schemas temporels de consommation lies a l'occupation des bâtiments constituent un indicateur important pour identifier, comprendre et reduire le gaspillage energetique dans les bâtiments. Les compteurs evolues sont capables d'enregistrer des donnees energetiques a de brefs intervalles d'une demi-heure ou moins. Neanmoins, il est encore souvent possible que l'analyse de ces donnees suive des techniques traditionnelles de controle et de ciblage precedemment developpees pour des donnees energetiques quotidiennes ou hebdomadaires. Afin d'examiner plus completement les possibilites offertes par les compteurs evolues et de comprendre les schemas de consommation d'energie et le gaspillage energetique dans les bâtiments non residentiels, il a ete realise une etude longitudinale des donnees energetiques recueillies dans environ 300 bâtiments de Leicester, au Royaume-Uni, entre 2001 et 2008. Il s'agissait de la premiere etude de ce genre. Des donnees probantes provenant des compteurs de gaz, d'electricite et d'eau ont ete rassemblees, la consommation d'eau etant utilisee comme une preuve indirecte d'occupation des bâtiments. Des algorithmes de nettoyage des donnees sont decrits. Concernant le chauffage au gaz des espaces, il a ete identifie quatre modes principaux de defaillance dans les bâtiments, qui entrainent une consommation d'energie excessive et sont source de gaspillage. En 2004, 34% des bâtiments etaient chauffes lors des periodes d'inoccupation les week-ends, cette proportion etant neanmoins ramenee a 22% en 2008. Une analyse longitudinale des charges de base electriques nocturnes a indique un taux annuel moyen d'augmentation d'environ 8%, bien que de grandes variations existent entre les bâtiments. Cette methode d'identification des phenomenes de controle des bâtiments peut etre appliquee a tout ensemble de donnees energetiques mesurees par compteur couvrant une periode d'echantillonnage comparable.

Illustrating limitations of energy studies of buildings with LCA and actor analysis

Abstract: Does passive housing really have better environmental performance than conventional housing? Three passive houses and four conventional houses were compared using a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. The comparison also provided an actor analysis for the building supply chain and building inhabitants. Results are presented for two scenarios: ‘conventional choices’ and ‘green choices’ by the actors. The comparison confirms that passive houses have lower energy use than conventional houses, but when the environmental impact of energy production is taken into consideration, the outcome is less clear. Conventional houses can be equally good environmentally in terms of global warming, acidification, or radioactive waste as typical passive houses with electrical heating depending on the actors' choices. Actor analysis shows that inhabitants' and material producers' electricity choice are very important, while other choices (e.g. green transport) are less important. The findings highlight the importance of...

Solar gain and building envelope: the surface factor

Abstract: Harnessing the appropriate radiative characteristics of buildings' external surfaces is a highly effective way to reduce internal space heating and cooling demand. Building energy-dynamic simulations are created in order to compare various external coatings with reference to a social housing case study in a typical Mediterranean climate (Naples, Italy). An innovative index, the surface factor (SF), is proposed to inform the choice of the most suitable surface coatings as a function of local climatic conditions and thereby reduce overall energy demand. For cities with high solar gain and/or low winter degrees-day (SF > 0.65), high-reflective and/or high-emissive coatings (i.e. ‘cool paints’) are suitable, while low-reflective and/or low-emissive external coatings are more suitable for cooler climates (SF < 0.4). The simultaneous interactions of wall mass, surface radiative characteristics, and indoor ventilation on the summer cooling energy demands are evaluated and substantial heating or cooling savings c...

Sustainability and property valuation: a risk-based approach

Abstract: The proportion of sustainable property in the total building stock remains small. One reason is that the financial added value resulting from sustainability is not sufficiently taken into account in property valuation due to the tendency of valuations to lag behind market trends. Quantitative information is provided to integrate those aspects of sustainability relating to value into valuations and thereby contribute to the reduction of valuation lag. The Centre for Corporate Responsibility and Sustainability (CCRS) Economic Sustainability Indicator (ESI) measures the risk of property to lose value and the opportunity to gain value due to future developments (e.g. climate change or rising energy prices). Five groups of value-related sustainability features were identified: flexibility and polyvalence; energy and water dependency; accessibility and mobility; security; and health and comfort. By minimizing the risk of loss in value through future developments, those sustainability features contribute to the property value. Their effects on property value were quantified by risk modelling. As an indicator for future-oriented property risk, the ESI is integrated into the discount rate of discounted cash flow valuations. The approach was tested for plausibility and practicability on more than 200 properties.

Accommodating innovation in building regulation: lessons and challenges

Abstract: Over the past 25 years, building regulations in many countries have become less prescriptive and more functional or performance oriented. Concurrently, there has been an increase in the application of performance-based design concepts and in the use of innovative building methods and materials. In some cases, there has also been an increased reliance on self-certification by design professionals. Each of these changes promises flexibility in design and reduction of regulatory burden. In most cases, the promises are fulfilled. However, there are also cases where some aspect of the system does not work as intended, and buildings are constructed that do not meet performance expectations, sometimes with serious consequences. Focusing on experiences from member countries of the Inter-Jurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration Committee (IRCC), challenges faced and lessons learned from issues associated with accommodating innovation within building regulatory systems are examined: innovation outpacing readiness, a...

A framework for combining risk-management and performance-based building approaches

Abstract: Models and frameworks used for managing construction projects are typically inspired in business ‘cultures’ that prevail within industrial contexts. The conceptual backgrounds of quality, performance, and risk environments are explored to ascertain whether these ‘cultures’ can complement each other. A new general approach towards Risk-Managed Performance-Based Building (RM-PBB) is presented, including the principles and inputs used for designing and implementing an RM-PBB framework. Such a framework envisages the fulfilment of end-users' (society and individuals) and other interested parties' requirements relating to the building product, as well as the agile interaction between and within the building, manufacturing, property, and capital and insurance markets, at both national and international levels. Les modeles et les cadres utilises pour gerer les projets de construction trouvent habituellement leur inspiration dans les « cultures » d'entreprise qui prevalent dans les contextes industriels. Les arri...