Showing papers in "Instructional Science in 2006"
TL;DR: By combining methods of social network analysis with qualitative content analysis, the article explores new methodologies for analyzing participation, interaction, and learning that take place online, and suggests areas for research in learning and teaching online.
Abstract: Online discussion plays a unique role in face-to-face and distance teaching and learning. Interaction and student cognitive engagement during the online discussion are critical for constructing new understanding and knowledge. This article analyzes types of interaction that occur during online discussions, examines levels of student cognitive engagement in each discussion, and explores their effects on and implications for learning and teaching in higher education. By combining methods of social network analysis with qualitative content analysis, the article explores new methodologies for analyzing participation, interaction, and learning that take place online, and suggests areas for research in learning and teaching online.
332 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated whether students in a new learning environment (NLE) perceive it to be more constructivist when compared with the perceptions students have of a conventional lecture-based environment, using a questionnaire consisting of seven key factors of constructivist learning environments.
Abstract: Research into students’ perceptions of their learning environments reveals the impact of these perceptions on the way students cope with these learning environments. Consequently, students’ perceptions affect the results of their learning. This study aims to investigate whether students in a new learning environment (NLE) perceive it to be more constructivist when compared with the perceptions students have of a conventional lecture-based environment. Using a questionnaire consisting of seven key factors of constructivist learning environments, the results show that students in the NLE perceive it to be more constructivist when compared to the perceptions of students in a conventional lecture-based environment. The difference was statistically significant for four of the seven factors. According to the effect size, as measured by the d-index, the difference in perception between the two groups was greatest for the factor ‘conceptual conflicts and dilemmas’.
132 citations
TL;DR: A personalized task-selection model with shared instructional control based on two current tendencies for the dynamic sequencing of learning tasks that can be used to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction and to make it more appealing by providing the learner an optimal level of control over task selection.
Abstract: Corbalan, G., Kester, L., & Van Merrienboer, J .J. G. (2006). Towards a personalized task selection model with shared instructional control. Instructional Science, 34 , 399-422.
116 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a learning study based on the learning theory of variation was used to help primary 3 students in Hong Kong to learn about the color of light, so that the students attained conceptual rather than procedural knowledge.
Abstract: This paper shows how the patterns of variation created in the teaching were critical in helping a class of Primary 3 students in Hong Kong to learn about the colour of light, so that the students attained conceptual rather than procedural knowledge. A ‘Learning Study’ approach was adopted, which is a Lesson Study grounded in a particular learning theory to improve teaching and learning. This study, based on the learning theory of Variation advanced by Marton and Booth, was premised on three types of variation: variation in students’ ways of experiencing what is to be taught/learnt (V1), variation in teachers’ ways of dealing with the ‘object of learning’ (V2), and the use of ‘pattern of variation’ as a guiding principle of pedagogical design to enhance students’ learning (V3). In planning the lesson, a conscious effort was made to create relevant patterns of variation, i.e. varying certain critical aspect(s) while keeping other aspects of the object of learning invariant in order to help students to discern those aspects. Comparison between the results of the pre- and post-test shows that there was significant gain in the students’ learning outcomes with respect to the intended object of learning. The findings contribute knowledge to how the Theory of Variation can be used in practice. It also illustrates how teachers can make use of this theoretical framework to analyze their own teaching and thereby, develop an analytical awareness of teaching and learning.
81 citations
TL;DR: The authors explored student views on writing as shown by the metaphors they use when asked to reflect on their own writing-to-learn tasks in the science classroom and found that metaphor use is strongly affected by student writing experiences.
Abstract: This article explores student views on writing as shown by the metaphors they use when asked to reflect on their own writing-to-learn tasks in the science classroom The study examines the metaphors and metaphoric themes of 97 eighth grade students, discusses how they compare to important theories on writing to learn, and explores how student views on writing are affected by their classroom writing experiences The study shows (1) that the identification of metaphors and clustering them around recurring themes can help to systematize the experiential meanings of writing with reference to four dimensions: cognitive, social, emotional and meta-cognitive; (2) that student views on writing correspond to various theoretical models, but are not identical to them; (3) that metaphor use is strongly affected by student writing experiences and that writing-to-learn tasks, feedback and reflective writing greatly influence student views on writing; and finally, (4) the study found two multidimensional conceptualizations reflected in the student metaphors, corresponding to the constructivist and transmission views of teaching and learning
76 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the result patterns of two discussion conditions (required (R-) condition versus non-required (NR-) condition) of a non-course-based discussion forum and investigated how the quality of message content changed in the processes of discussion.
Abstract: In this study we content analyzed the online discussion of several senior-high-school groups on a forum of a virtual physics laboratory in Taiwan. The goal of our research was to investigate the nature of non-course-based online discussion and to find out some useful guidelines in developing such discussion forums for learning purposes. We adapted Henri’s framework and models (1992) for our analysis. The content analysis was conducted in terms of participation rate, social cues, interaction types, and cognitive and metacognitive skills. In this study, we compared the result patterns of two discussion conditions (‘required’ (R-) condition versus ‘non-required’ (NR-) condition) of a non-course-based discussion forum and investigated how the quality of message content changed in the processes of discussion. In the R-condition, participants were required to reply to the thread before they were allowed to read other messages on the forum, whereas participants in the NR-condition were not restricted to this demand. The results showed that for both conditions, the most frequently involved interaction type was ‘direct response’, and the most frequently used cognitive skill was ‘elementary clarification’. Fewer participants of the R-condition strayed from the subject under discussion in comparison to the NR-condition. However, larger percentage of message content containing metacognitive components was found in the NR-condition. When taking the sequences of postings into account, we found that for the R-condition, the percentage of metacognitive component in the message content tended to increase in the up-third postings, whereas for the up-third postings of the NR-condition the percentage of non-cognitive components substantially increased. Overall, the results of our study indicated that the way in which participants used cognitive and metacognitive skills during the discussions was related to the discussion conditions. The initial requirement of reply fostered the use of cognitive skills, but it did not necessarily induce the use of high-level cognitive or metacognitive skills. We concluded that beside the discussion conditions the moderators’ guidance would be influential in determining the quality of online discussion on a non-course-based discussion forum.
61 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the effect of audio and visual instructions on the imagination effect and found that learners who studied tended to engage in search while learners who imagined focused on entities and relations that needed to be learned.
Abstract: Under some conditions, learning is improved by using a dual mode presentation involving for example, visual diagrams and auditory, rather than written text (modality effect). Under other conditions, learning is improved by asking learners to imagine rather than study instructional material (imagination effect). Both effects have been explained using cognitive load theory. This paper investigates interactions between the modality and imagination effects. It was hypothesized that the imagination effect would be facilitated when accompanied by audio/visual instructions compared to visual only instructions. Experiment 1 provided evidence to suggest that for the materials used, audio/visual instructions were required to obtain an imagination effect. Experiment 2 through verbal protocols aimed to investigate the cognitive mechanisms required when studying and imagining and found that learners who studied tended to engage in search while learners who imagined focused on entities and relations that needed to be learned.
45 citations
TL;DR: It appears that the presence of an HT pushes learners to use help tools, but this effect is still relatively weak and therefore may not justify the cost of employing a human tutor.
Abstract: This article presents an experimental study demonstrating how 120 learners use help tools in a virtual learning set-up. More specifically, several types of tutoring are investigated to find out the extent of the use of help tools in each. The effects of two independent variables which may have an impact on the behaviour of learners are studied: (1) whether or not they have access to a human tutor (HT) and (2) the tutor’s means of intervention (reactive or proactive). One of the goals of the study is to determine whether these modes of tutoring can influence positively or negatively distance learners’ use of lexical, conceptual, metacognitive and navigational help tools. The results of analysis of variance show that it is useless to prompt (effect of proactivity) learners to use the help that is available to them but that prompting is sometimes more subtle than initially foreseen. It appears that the presence of an HT pushes learners to use help tools, but this effect (of the presence of the HT) is still relatively weak and therefore may not justify the cost of employing a human tutor. It is also important to show the necessary intrinsic quality of the tools made available in order for a given mode of tutoring to have an effect on their use.
44 citations
TL;DR: Findings from exploratory post-hoc tests show that conversational language can help to produce patterns of interaction that foster high levels of critical discourse, and that some forms of conversationallanguage are more effective in eliciting responses than others.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of conversational language (e.g., asking questions, inviting replies, acknowledgments, referencing others by name, closing signatures, ‘I agree, but’, greetings, etc.) on the frequency and types of responses posted in reply to given types of messages (e.g., argument, evidence, critique, explanation), and how the resulting response patterns support and inhibit collaborative argumentation in asynchronous online discussions. Using event sequence analysis to analyze message-response exchanges in eight online group debates, this study found that (a) arguments elicited 41% more challenges when presented with more conversational language (effect size .32), (b) challenges with more conversational language elicited three to eight times more explanations (effect size .12 to .31), and (c) the number of supporting evidence elicited by challenges was not significantly different from challenges that used more versus less conversational language. Overall, these and other findings from exploratory post-hoc tests show that conversational language can help to produce patterns of interaction that foster high levels of critical discourse, and that some forms of conversational language are more effective in eliciting responses than others.
41 citations
TL;DR: This article found that most college students disagreed with their helpfulness in prompting reflective thinking, a finding opposite to that obtained for middle-school students, and different patterns were also found between learners' perceptions of the most helpful elements within each factor.
Abstract: Reflective-thinking skills are important in problem-based learning environments as they help learners become deeply engaged in learning. The literature suggests several instructional-design factors (e.g., environment, teaching methods, scaffolding tools) that may prompt reflection in learners. However, it is unclear whether these factors differ based on age or developmental stage. The results of this study indicate that middle-school students perceive the learning environment factor as more important to prompting their thinking, while college students perceive the scaffolding methods factor as more important. While the elements clustered into two factors, most college students disagreed with their helpfulness in prompting reflective thinking, a finding opposite to that obtained for middle-school students. Different patterns were also found between learners’ perceptions of the most helpful elements within each factor. Based on these results, suggestions are given for designing developmentally and age-appropriate PBL learning environments that support reflective thinking.
40 citations
TL;DR: There appears to be no clear recipe for successful interaction between pairs of corporate research scientists and university biology students in an electronic mentoring program, and mentor–protégé pairs can falter at various stages in the process and in various ways.
Abstract: Interactivity is defined by Henri (1992) as a three-step process involving communication of information, a response to this information, and a reply to that first response. It is a key dimension of computer-mediated communication, particularly in the one-on-one communication involved in an electronic mentoring program. This report analyzes the interactivity between pairs of corporate research scientists (mentors) and university biology students (proteges) during two consecutive implementations of an electronic mentoring program. The frequency and structure of the interactions within each pair were examined to provide context: 542 messages were posted among the 20 mentors and 20 proteges. These messages were formed into 5–10 threads per pair, with 3–4 messages per thread, indicating a high level of interactivity (there were more responses posted than independent messages). Mentor–protege pairs rated as effective by both mentors and proteges posted more messages overall, had well-structured threads, had protege and mentor postings that were similar in topic coverage and message length, and had little overt “management” behavior by mentors. However, there appears to be no clear recipe for successful interaction. Not only are there a variety of factors at play in developing an online relationship in this context, but mentor–protege pairs can falter at various stages in the process and in various ways.
TL;DR: The influence of certain tutor’s and students’ inter-related scaffolding patterns onStudents’ decision-making provided empirical support for the ‘multi-actor’ scaffolding model.
Abstract: This study investigates the mechanisms of scaffolding in a synchronous network-based environment – the ‘collaborative virtual workplace’. A theoretical ‘multi-actor’ scaffolding model was formulated. The study itself focused on the role and inter-relations of verbal scaffolding by tutor and peers during a collaborative process of making decisions about environmental issues. The analysis drew on data from the decision-making discussions of 31 groups – material that was saved automatically by the learning environment software. The age of the 62 students ranged from 14 to 17. Discourse act categories were devised to describe the tutor’s and the students’ task-related, supportive and social communicative acts. The scaffolding situation was characterized through a causal discourse act interaction approach. Tutor and students appeared to be elaborating and replacing each other’s process scaffolding acts in the collaborative decision-making situation. The influence of certain tutor’s and students’ inter-related scaffolding patterns on students’ decision-making provided empirical support for the ‘multi-actor’ scaffolding model.
TL;DR: There are different types of iteration, triggered by different kinds of actions and events during instructional design, some of which originate from outside (new information, new opinions/arguments and acquisition procedures); others are caused by, or evolve from interaction with the design process itself.
Abstract: Instructional design is not a linear process: designers have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of alternative solutions, taking into account different kinds of conflicting and changing constraints. To make sure that they eventually choose the most optimal one, they have to keep on collecting information, reconsidering continuously whether their own decisions are still justified in the light of the latest insights. We have studied the role of iteration during instructional design. For our research, we have used an ISD-based method for the specification of training simulators. During our empirical evaluation study, we introduced five events that are likely to cause iteration. The results show that the quality of the designs is not directly related to the amount of iteration. We conclude that there are different kinds of iteration, triggered by different kinds of actions and events. We propose a list of triggers for iteration some of which originate from outside (new information, new opinions/arguments and acquisition procedures); others are caused by, or evolve from interaction with the design process itself (discovery of missing input, need to repair errors, new insights based on work later on in the design process, and new ideas of the designers).
TL;DR: In this paper, a qualitative study explored strategies for motivating mixed profile classes by comparing learning behaviors of high and low efficacy students in an undergraduate technology skills course and found that low-efficacy students could be motivated by providing them with opportunities to acclimatize to the use of technical vocabulary and a technical environment.
Abstract: Students usually enter technology skills courses with varying experience and self-efficacy with technology. Teaching classes with mixed-efficacy at the same pace and level of contents may not ensure that all students would be equally motivated. This qualitative study explored strategies for motivating mixed profile classes by comparing learning behaviors of high and low efficacy students in an undergraduate technology skills course. It was found that low-efficacy students could be motivated by providing them with opportunities to acclimatize to the use of technical vocabulary and a technical environment. On the other hand, high-efficacy students could be motivated with opportunities to learn new technical contents. The study identified three critical stages of motivation and the strategies that could be adopted by instructors.
TL;DR: This paper describes how the Multi-Attribute Utility Theory can be combined with adaptive techniques to improve individualised teaching in an Intelligent Learning Environment (ILE) to help novice users learn basic skills of computer use.
Abstract: This paper describes how the Multi-Attribute Utility Theory can be combined with adaptive techniques to improve individualised teaching in an Intelligent Learning Environment (ILE). The ILE is called Web F-SMILE, it operates over the Web and is meant to help novice users learn basic skills of computer use. Tutoring is dynamically adapted to the individual learner based on the learner modelling component of the system and the Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) that is employed to process the information about the user. As a result, MAUT provides a way for the system to select on the fly the best possible advice to be presented to users. Advice is dynamically formed based on adaptive presentation techniques, where adaptation is performed at the content level and adaptive navigation support, which is performed at the link level of the hyperspace of the tutoring system. The adaptivity of learning depends on factors such as the learner’s habits, prior knowledge and skills, which are used as criteria for the application of MAUT in the educational software. In this way, a novel combination of MAUT with adaptive techniques is used for intelligent web-based tutoring.
TL;DR: This paper explored children's theory-prediction consistency in a computer-mediated task in which multiple opportunities were provided to predict outcomes and review theories, and found that the intervention encouraged the children to use their theory to make predictions, significantly improved their ability to identify cause.
Abstract: Theory-testing can only inform scientific inquiry when the prediction of test outcome is based upon the current theory (theory-prediction consistency). This investigation explores children’s theory-prediction consistency in a computer-mediated task in which multiple opportunities were provided to predict outcomes and review theories. An initial correlation study revealed that theory-prediction consistency was associated with children’s success when attempting to identify causation. The second study investigated the effect of goal and a simple intervention upon children’s theory-prediction consistency. The type of goal appeared to have no effect but the intervention, which encouraged the children to use their theory to make predictions, significantly improved their ability to identify cause. Interestingly, it also improved other aspects of their performance – such as encouraging more reflection upon the outcomes of tests. The results imply that poor theory-prediction consistency may be related to difficulties in identifying the type of problem being presented.
TL;DR: This study indicates that well-designed Web-based support helps to construct competence maps, and indicates that the availability of the construction kit and the phenomenarium had positive effects on perceived process quality and learning.
Abstract: Stoof, A., Martens, R.L., & Van Merrienboer, J.J.G. (2006). Effects of web-based support for the construction of competence maps. Instructional Science, 34, 189-211