Showing papers in "International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability in 2013"

The role of agricultural biodiversity in strengthening resilience to climate change: towards an analytical framework

Abstract: Traditional agricultural communities manage biodiversity at various scales, creating dynamic landscape mosaics of fields, gardens, orchards, pastures and ecosystem patches. Agricultural biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge are essential to the climate change resilience of these landscapes, but their roles are largely overlooked by researchers and policy makers. A review of 172 case studies and project reports from around the world shows that agricultural biodiversity contributes to resilience through a number of, often combined, strategies: the protection and restoration of ecosystems, the sustainable use of soil and water resources, agro-forestry, diversification of farming systems, various adjustments in cultivation practices and the use of stress-tolerant crops and crop improvement. Using social–ecological systems theory as a conceptual framework, these practices are examined to identify indicators of resilience in agricultural landscapes. The indicators are a first step in the development...

Benefits and challenges of crop rotations in maize-based conservation agriculture (CA) cropping systems of southern Africa

Abstract: Conservation agriculture (CA) based on minimum soil disturbance, crop residue retention, crop rotations and associations are being promoted in southern Africa to reverse the decline in soil fertility and crop productivity. While agronomic benefits of rotations are known, farm level benefits of rotations in CA systems and how they fit in the smallholder farming systems have not been sufficiently addressed. This paper summarizes agronomic results from 2005 to 2011 of maize in rotation and association with different crops in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Rotation with or without legumes improved water infiltration (between 70 and 238%), soil moisture, soil carbon, macro-fauna and crop productivity. However, due to poor market conditions, rotations with legumes were less profitable than maize during the study period. Farmers have fewer difficulties to abandon tillage and there is scope to retain crop residues in situ in areas of limited crop–livestock competition but the adoption of rotations and a...

Roles of extension and ethno-religious networks in acceptance of resource-conserving agriculture among Ethiopian farmers

Abstract: This article analyses roles of social and extension networks in adoption of resource-conserving practices among Ethiopian farmers. We gathered data from 297 randomly sampled households on their agricultural practices, social networks, access to the extension, and geographical location. After examining general determinants of practising resource-conserving agriculture, we employ a two-stage regression with full-maximum likelihood correction for selection bias to establish the roles of general social networks and external professionals in acceptance of conservation techniques. In accordance with previous research, probit regression in the first stage shows that the access to extension increases with farmers’ wealth and the size of their personal networks, and decreases with the distance of their households from village centres. However, after accounting for this unequal access to extension, the second-stage linear regression shows that regardless of education, wealth or geographical location, those whose re...

Improving the productivity and income of Ghanaian cocoa farmers while maintaining environmental services: what role for certification?

Abstract: Ghana, as the second largest global producer of cocoa, is strategically positioned on the world market. Consumer concerns over ethical and environmental issues associated with cocoa production are a potential threat to its position. These concerns have given rise to certification. Certification dictates the way cocoa can be produced and consequently affects producers’ incomes and environmental services. The expected profitability, yield, and environmental impact of Rainforest Alliance certified shade-grown cocoa production (RA-Cocoa) is estimated and compared to an extensive shaded production system (Ext-Cocoa) and an intensified full sun production system (High-Tech). Ext-Cocoa represents most cocoa production systems in Ghana, while High-Tech is promoted by the government as a tool for attaining its target output of 1 million tons. Under the baseline assumptions High-Tech was the most profitable; RA-Cocoa generated positive returns, while Ext-cocoa was a break even proposition. Simulation of different p...

Integration of conservation agriculture in smallholder farming systems of southern Africa: identification of key entry points

Abstract: A component-omission experiment based on the principle of conservation agriculture (CA) was established on smallholder farms for three seasons in Murehwa and Hwedza districts, Zimbabwe; Barue district in Mozambique; Balaka district and Chitedze Research Station in Malawi, and Monze district in Zambia to identify strategies for improving crop productivity and livelihoods for smallholder farmers. The objective of the experiment was to evaluate the effect of tillage, residue retention, fertiliser application and weed control on maize yield. In addition, the study analysed possible combinations of these factors that could provide a sustainable entry point for intensification through CA. Results showed that fertilisation had the strongest effect on crop yield in both tillage systems; adequate fertilisation is therefore key to success in CA. Retention of crop harvest residues increased yield in no-tillage systems; no-tillage without residues depressed yield by 50% when compared with yields of conventional tilla...

Adoption of soil and water conservation technologies in the Rwizi catchment of south western Uganda

Abstract: Soil and water conservation technologies, such as mulching, grass strips and retention ditches, have been promoted in many areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. However, technology adoption rates have remained unsatisfactory. In this study, a logit model was used to examine the adoption of soil and water conservation technologies in the Rwizi catchment of Uganda using cross-sectional survey data from 271 smallholder farmers. Findings revealed that the likelihood to adopt these conservation technologies by smallholder farmers is explained by land size, tropical livestock units, access to extension services, value of gross output, gender of the household head and location of the farmers. Our results further showed that the quadratic term in land size was significant and negative, highlighting an acreage threshold to adoption. In general, our findings underscore the importance of information access and landownership in adoption of soil and water conservation technologies in the Rwizi catchment of Uganda.

Transformation of smallholder beef cattle production in Vietnam

Abstract: This research describes and analyses how smallholder crop livestock farmers in rural Ea Kar, Vietnam, were able to take advantage of the rising demand for meat in urban centres and transform cattle production from a traditional, extensive grazing system to a more intensive, stall-fed system that supplied quality meat to urban markets. The traditional grazing system produced low-quality animals that could only be sold for local consumption. Introduction of the concept of farm-grown fodder production enabled farmers to produce fatter animals, achieving higher sale prices, and reduce labour inputs by moving from grazing to stall-feeding. These benefits convinced farmers, traders and local government that smallholder cattle production could be a viable enterprise and so stimulated stakeholder interest. Within 10 years, the way that cattle were produced and marketed changed considerably. By 2010, more than 3,000 smallholders had adopted farm-grown forages and stall-feeding, and many produced high-quality beef ...

Participatory trials and farmers' social realities: understanding the adoption of legume technologies in a Malawian farmer community

Abstract: This article presents results from a study exploring the reasons for low adoption of legume technologies to improve soil fertility by farmers from a community in central Malawi who took part in participatory trials. This study explores the influence of gender roles in agriculture and land ownership and socio-economic differentiation in the community. Because most women do not own land and are traditionally responsible for legume crops, they have little interest in managing soil fertility for maize crops. Men are not interested in using legumes in maize-cropping systems. Some are too poor: this group needs to complement their subsistence maize production with paid labour on the farms of better-off farmers; restricting the labour availability for their own farming activities. Wealthier farmers have access to, and prefer to use chemical fertilizer and cattle manure. Take-up rates among the middle group of farmers were also low. This study discusses how these (and other) factors influence the (non-)adoption of maize-legume technologies in Malawi and the effectiveness of participatory research. It emphasizes how differentiated farmer-realities affect the uptake of technologies identified as promising in participatory field evaluations.

Can organic and resource-conserving agriculture improve livelihoods? A synthesis

Abstract: Organic and resource-conserving agriculture (ORCA) initiatives have been common in the tropics for several decades, but surprisingly few data are available on their performance. This synthesis examined 31 documented cases of African and Latin American farmers converting from conventional or organic-by-default systems to ORCA that assessed their impact on livelihoods. Yield improved in 19 of the 25 cases that reported on it, food security improved in seven of eight cases, and net income improved in 19 of 23 cases. However, it is not possible to generalize from these results due to the small sample, selection bias and inconsistent methods and definitions across the cases. The systems from which farmers converted (conventional or organic-by-default) and the degree of market orientation strongly influenced the gain in incomes. Successful ORCA initiatives do not occur spontaneously, but rather require a variety of skills from smallholders and their allies. These skills include adaptive farm management, effecti...

Environmental and socio-economic sustainability of chinampas (raised beds) in Xochimilco, Mexico City

Abstract: The chinampas (raised beds) of Xochimilco, Mexico City, are highly productive, traditional wetland agricultural systems, which were able to feed most of the population in pre-hispanic times. There is a strong trend to substitute chinampas with plastic greenhouses for flower production, which creates negative impacts in the landscape, environment and culture. This study compares the environmental and socio-economic sustainability of chinampas and greenhouses, at both the farm and regional levels, using the MESMIS framework. Even though the results show that greenhouses are more profitable, the contribution of chinampas to ecosystem services cannot be substituted by greenhouses, as tree cover is lost, canals are filled and food is not provided. Greenhouses had a higher diversity, but also a higher agrochemical use and are heavily dependent on external inputs and subsidies. Chinampas have shifted from staple crops to commercial horticulture in order to remain a technically viable and economically feasible op...

Sustainability dimensions related to agricultural-based development: the experience of 50 years of intensive farming in Almería (Spain)

Abstract: In the context of the current agri-food market, several factors have made it increasingly difficult to balance the components of sustainability in agricultural-based development. These factors include increasing internationalization, tighter control of distribution and frequent changes in agricultural policies. Indeed, in the framework of European rural policy there has been considerable debate in recent years concerning the role of the agricultural sector and how it should face the following challenges: productivity-competitiveness, environmental protection and socio-economic development. There is, therefore, a growing need for practical analyses that adopt a holistic approach. This paper analyses how this sector in the province of Almeria (Spain), based on horticultural family farms, has risen to the above issues over recent decades. This case study provides some insights into the different trade-offs and synergies between sustainability dimensions. In particular, the integration of ecological, social a...

Perceptions and outlook on intercropping coffee with banana as an opportunity for smallholder coffee farmers in Uganda

Abstract: Coffee and banana are important cash and food crops in Uganda and the surrounding East African highland region. Production is dominated by smallholders that have limited arable land and often coffee and banana are intercropped. No significant research and development efforts have been undertaken over the last few decades on this coffee/banana intercropping system. Because recent studies suggest that this system could be a practice with high benefits to the farmers, we decided to study the perceptions of stakeholders along the coffee value chain starting with farmers. Perception analysis based on open-ended interviews following interview guides revealed that a major limitation for the sustainability of this system was poor soil fertility conditions. Perceptions on the benefits of intercropping differed little among coffee actors; that is, banana intercropping provides additional food and income from smallholders’ limited land and helps farmers reduce risks related to drought, pest/disease attacks and coffee price volatility. However, farmers’ desire to minimize risks does not match the objective of stakeholders higher up the coffee value chain to maximize coffee production. Furthermore, research by public institutes, both national and international, is primarily organized for single crops and not systems. We conclude that the institutional setting of the coffee sector hampers the promotion of intercropping, despite the benefits for the farmer.

Asset building in response to value chain development: lessons from taro producers in Nicaragua

Abstract: Value chain development (VCD) dominates discussions on how to address poverty through engagement with the private sector. In the rural sector, interventions often focus on building mutually beneficial linkages for production, and marketing of agricultural and forest products. However, the poverty impacts of VCD remain an open question. This research examines the impacts of interventions in Nicaragua for the development of a taro value chain involving smallholders, a cooperative and exporters. Poverty impacts are assessed at the household level based on changes in the endowments of five livelihood assets. Data collection concerned changes in asset endowments for 127 households from 2007 to 2009. The results suggest that the poverty impacts of VCD varied considerably based on production technologies, but that, in general were limited due to households’ low levels of pre-existing asset endowments, the limited nature of the VCD interventions and a less-than-enabling market and institutional context. Greater a...

Facilitating competency development in sustainable agriculture and food systems education: a self-assessment approach

Abstract: The need to develop students’ professional and personal competencies via sustainable agriculture and food systems education has recently received much attention; however, implementing competency-based education is challenging. This paper demonstrates how educators can approach identifying and teaching foundational competencies and assessing their students’ competency development. Using the case of a Food Systems class in an undergraduate Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems major at a US land-grant university, we discuss the philosophical and practical aspects of implementing competency-based education and analyse data from students’ use of a competency self-assessment framework in 2009 and 2010. We demonstrate specific analyses that instructors can use for assessing competency development in other contexts. The analysis and results from the case, discussed in depth, demonstrate that the use of these types of competency-based frameworks provides rich opportunities for multiple analyses that can connec...

Sustainable urban agriculture and the adoption of composts in Cameroon

Abstract: The increased importance of urban agriculture in developing countries suggests reconsidering some innovation adoption opportunities and challenges, particularly soil fertility inputs. In sub-Saharan Africa, urban horticulture uses a high level of soil inputs like inorganic fertilizers, while local composts are far less common. Yet, municipal solid wastes provide high quantity of organic matter, a major component of compost. Our study aimed to determine if urban horticulture in sub-Saharan towns can provide incentives for compost adoption among farmers. To this end, we surveyed 242 farmers in Yaounde, the capital of Cameroon in the Central Province, and in Bafoussam, a city in the West Province. We used an Ordered Logit Model to test four soil input modalities adopted by farmers and ranging from no soil inputs, composts only, composts and inorganic fertilizers, and inorganic fertilizers only. Our results revealed that 36% of farmers adopt an exclusive or mixed use of compost. Inorganic fertilizer expenditu...

A farm-scale biodiversity and ecosystem services assessment tool: The healthy farm index

Abstract: Farm management focused on maximizing biomass production results in biological simplification and ultimately a degraded production potential for the future. Despite the large and growing body of evidence pointing to the need to restore biodiversity to farm systems, incorporation of biodiversity and ecosystem services into local agricultural land-use decision-making remains limited. The lack of planned and associated biodiversity may reduce resiliency of local managed ecosystems and add management costs; however, the tradeoff for individual landowners of greater diversity is increased management complexity and uncertainty. To assist farmers in managing biodiversity and to encourage ecological thinking, we developed the Healthy Farm Index, a farm-scale tool that complements existing farm assessment tools by integrating multiple metrics and outputs suitable for applied decision-making and annual evaluation. In this article, we describe the impetus for the index development and the structure of the index and ...

Improving rural livelihoods through the conservation and use of underutilized species: evidence from a community research project in Yemen

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to analyse the impact of a set of interventions related to conservation and use of neglected and underutilized species (NUS) on people's livelihoods. Specifically, a simultaneous three-equation model of households' participation on underutilized crops conservation and income generation activities is applied to evaluate the outcome of a pilot research project implemented by Bioversity International in Yemen between 2002 and 2005. Results generated show a relation between project participation and the perceived yield increase demonstrating the importance for farmers to actively participate in the project's activities and subsequently apply agronomic practices learnt to improve their livelihood. The generated benefits incentivized farmers to continue to apply the interventions beyond the lifetime of the project ensuring thus a sustainable process in which exogenous interventions, once adopted by farmers become integrant part of farmer's agronomic practices.

Assessing the potential of SRI management principles and the FFS approach in Northeast Thailand for sustainable rice intensification in the context of climate change

Abstract: The paper describes the facilitated learning process of farmers, its results and implications in addressing the low productivity of Jasmine rice in northeast Thailand using the SRI-FFS approach in a collaborative action research. Other involved included rice traders, millers, researchers, government and non-governmental organizations. Working through an inclusive process of dialogue, observation, diagnosis, experimentation and exposure to different types of innovative agronomic crop management (IACM) practices resulting from the SRI–FFS approach, participants made a thorough analysis of the current management practices and evaluated various IACM practices for their productivity and profitability. The results confirmed the potential of IACM in enhancing crop and water productivity along with soil fertility with relatively low input-use (seed, water and fertilizers) and higher net farm-income compared to existing crop management practices. However, factors such as (i) the age of the farmers and (ii) off-far...

Carbon accounting tools: are they fit for purpose in the context of arable cropping?

Abstract: The agricultural sector contributes 9% towards total UK greenhouse gas emissions and so may offer significant potential as a sector to help meet national and international emission reduction targets. In order to help farmers manage their emissions and to encourage more sustainable farming, several carbon accounting tools are now available. This article describes a short study that selected five suitable tools and compared their performance on nine European arable farms, concentrating on the crop production components, to determine how useful they are for assisting in the development of site-specific mitigation strategies and how well they would perform within farm assurance or benchmarking schemes. The results were mixed, with some tools better designed for identifying mitigation opportunities than others. The results also showed that, quantitatively, the results are highly variable between tools and depended on the selected functional unit, this being highly important if the wider aspects of sustainabili...

The potential of participatory hybrid breeding

Abstract: This article explores the potential of involving smallholder farmers in hybrid development for their low-external input farming systems. We have developed a conceptual model of the procedures, based on five assumptions: (a) the hybrids are bred for adaptation to local needs and preferences; (b) the dependence on and need for genetic diversity is taken into account; (c) breeders collaborate closely with farmers also in the initial stages of the breeding programme, that is, in establishing the breeding goals by identifying the desired traits and preferred local populations as (one of the) crossing parents; (d) hybrid seed production can be integrated into the farmers’ local seed system; and (e) farmers and breeders can agree on intellectual property rights, access and benefit sharing in a fair and transparent way. We illustrate the procedural consequences of these assumptions with reference to the case of a participatory maize breeding programme in southwest China, from 2000 to 2012, that included both open...

A participatory assessment of agro-ecosystem sustainability in Abesard, Iran

Abstract: Participatory approaches have emerged in developing countries as an integrated and holistic system approach for assessing the agro-ecosystem sustainability. The aim is to integrate and apply knowledge about natural and social aspects of agro-ecosystems, taking into account their long-term, uncertain and non-linear relationships. The purpose of the study described in this paper was to assess the sustainability of the agro-ecosystem of Abesard in Tehran Province. A participatory landscape/lifescape appraisal (PLLA) method was used within an agro-ecological framework to assess the farmers’ sense of agricultural sustainability based on different categories of sustainability (better-off, average and poor). Results indicated that a majority of farmers think of sustainability solely as an economic issue, followed by sustainability being a combination of ecological and social concerns. Regarding the indicators of sustainability, results revealed that for farmers in the poor group, resilience and stability were cr...

Faidherbia albida on the Tonga Plateau of southern Zambia: an agroecological analysis

Abstract: Faidherbia albida is a tree species indigenous to semi-arid regions of Africa that reportedly substantially increases maize (Zea mays) yields in its immediate vicinity. In southern Zambia, F. albida is widely used in indigenous maize farming systems and this has apparently increased over the past two decades. Using a combination of interviews, group meetings, and observations, this study sought to understand why this species seems to have recently been embraced, while other technological innovations apparently have not. We observed a bimodal age distribution of the trees in agricultural fields and posit that the missing cohorts were removed as weeds as a result of evolving notions of what constituted modern farming practices in the emerging maize economy. With subsequent research and social promotion of the beneficial effects of F. albida, farmers now allow the trees to grow in their fields. A holonic analysis points to the important relationship of F. albida to contexts that shaped past and current uses ...

Planning for agricultural sustainability

Abstract: What is sustainable agriculture, and how do we progress towards it, or maintain it? These are core questions that should be at the heart of this journal. They are also core questions at the heart of government policy-making for agriculture. Consequently, it is topical to note that the Australian government is in the process of finalizing a policy document that addresses agriculture for the next 20 years (DAFF 2012), and this has motivated a group of citizens to formalize a community of common concern and propose a ‘People’s Food Plan’ (AAFSA 2012). While these two 2012 proposals might seem to be only locally relevant, to Australia, government plans are not restricted to one country and the People’s Food Plan (hereafter, People’s Plan) acknowledges its intellectual origin in Canada (Peoples Food Policy 2011). Contrasting the plans is thus instructive for Australia and in the broader context of community concern and activism for sustainable agriculture. The first thing to note when comparing the Australian plans (Table 1) is that they have a common vision. Their goal, sustainable agriculture, is consistent with most definitions, for example, that ‘a sustainable agricultural system maintains or improves the environmental, human (social) and economic capitals of part and preferably all the food chain’ (Pearson 2008). The wordier vision of the People’s Plan addresses all the elements that were identified in the Australian government’s national strategy for ecologically sustainable development (Commonwealth of Australia 1992) with its recognition of individual and community welfare and equity within and between generations. The government’s vision for sustainable agriculture does not: its language draws attention to economic efficiency and access to food, although these might imply concern with community livelihoods and equity. Thus the vision of the People’s Plan is consistent with government policy, and with the longstanding research literature that agriculture exists to fulfill a multiplicity of human-set goals (e.g. Clawson 1969, Spedding 1979, Pearson and Ison 1987, Bawden and Ison 1992 et seq.) and with the contemporary, global debate as to future needs of agriculture (Pretty et al. 2010, p. 221). While ironically, the government plan, with its narrower definition and focus on economic efficiency and exports, is not. The latter is yet another example of ‘the majority of government programs. . . (where) there is a gap between the professed generic goal of sustainability and the recommended innovations, practices or suggested monitoring’ (Pearson 2008). The government plan is underpinned by an understanding that the present Australian agricultural system is sustainable. By contrast, the people’s plan posits that the current system is dysfunctional, not sustainable, and becoming increasingly inequitable and un-resilient. So, the government’s plan is incremental, whereas the people’s argues the need to be transformational. From different goals and perceptions of the sustainability of the present system flow radically different proposals. Efficiency and technological innovation drives increased production and exports in one, while a concern with domestic livelihoods in the other (Table 1). The Australian

Environmental and health impacts of poultry manure disposal methods: a case study of Lagelu and Egbeda local government areas in Oyo State, Nigeria

Abstract: Indiscriminate disposal of poultry manure has been identified as a major source of environmental degradation in production areas through air and water pollution associated with nitrogen and phosphorus emissions and losses from manure. Methods of disposing of poultry manure which might have negative consequences on the environment and the farmers were investigated in two Local Government Areas of Oyo State, Nigeria. Data collected using structured questionnaires as well as direct field observations from a random sample of 100 farming households showed that the commonly used methods of manure disposal are burning (87 households) and application on crops (9 households). Almost all of the farmers (99) had no proper manure management facilities. Ammonia is the major air pollutant perceived by 71 farmers in the study area. Farmers suffered from discomforts ranging from various combinations of sneezing (65%), eye irritation (38%), coughing (34%), headache (20%), stomach ache (13%) and diarrhoea (6%). The awarene...

Transformation and Sustainability in Agriculture: Connecting Practice with Social Theory

Abstract: Transformation and sustainability in agriculture: Connecting practice with social theory, edited by Sietze Vellema. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Netherlands, paperback, $70.00, 167 pp., ISBN 978...