Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Meteorology in 1989"

A Global Climatology of Albedo, Roughness Length and Stomatal Resistance for Atmospheric General Circulation Models as Represented by the Simple Biosphere Model (SiB)

Abstract: Components of the Simple Biosphere Model (SiB) of Sellers et al. (1986) were used to generate global monthly fields of surface albedo (0.4-4.0 microns), roughness length and minimum surface (stomatal) resistance. SiB consists of three submodels which describe the roles of radiative transfer, turbulent transfer and surface resistance in determining the energy balance of the vegetated land surface. These three submodels were detached from SiB and used on the SiB parameter set (total and green leaf area index, leaf angle orientation, canopy dimensions, etc.) to calculate global monthly fields of albedo, roughness length and minimum stomatal resistance at 1 x 1 deg resolution. Time series of various parameters are also displayed for each vegetation type for specified grid points. The SiB results compare reasonably well with appropriate measurements obtained from the literature and have the additional merit of being mutually consistent; the three submodels use many common parameters, which ensures that, for each grid area, the calculated surface properties are closely interrelated as is the case in nature. The derived fields provide a check on the operation of the submodels and the correctness of the parameter set. They can also be used as prescribed fields for GCMs that do not have biophysically based land surface parameterizations.

Estimation of regional surface resistance to evapotranspiration from NDVI and thermal-IR AVHRR data

Abstract: Infrared surface temperatures from satellite sensors have been used to infer evaporation and soil moisture distribution over large areas. However, surface energy partitioning to latent versus sensible heat changes with surface vegetation cover and water availability. We tested a hypothesis that the relationship between surface temperature and canopy density is sensitive to seasonal changes in canopy resistance of conifer forests. Surface temperature (Ts) and canopy density were computed for a 20 × 25 km forested region in Montana, from the NOAA/AVHRR for 8 days during the summer of 1985. A forest ecosystem model, FOREST-BGC, simulated canopy resistance (Rc) for the same period. For all eight days. surface temperatures had high association with canopy density, measured as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (R2 = 0.73 − 0.91), implying that latent heat exchange is the major cause of spatial variations in surface radiant temperatures. The slope of Ts and NDVI, σ, was sensitive to changes ...

Calibrating the Simple Biosphere Model for Amazonian Tropical Forest Using Field and Remote Sensing Data. Part I: Average Calibration with Field Data

Abstract: Using meteorological and hydrological measurements taken in and above the central-Amazon-basin tropical forest, calibration of the Sellers et al. (1986) simple biosphere (SiB) model are described. The SiB model is a one-dimensional soil-vegetation-atmosphere model designed for use within GCMs models, representing the vegetation cover by analogy with processes operating within a single representative plant. The experimental systems and the procedures used to obtain field data are described, together with the specification of the physiological parameterization required to provide an average description of data. It was found that some of the existing literature on stomatal behavior for tropical species is inconsistent with the observed behavior of the complete canopy in Amazonia, and that the rainfall interception store of the canopy is considerably smaller than originally specified in the SiB model.

Hybrid Plume Dispersion Model (HPDM) Development and Evaluation

Abstract: The Hybrid Plume Dispersion Model (HPDM) was developed for application to tall stack plumes dispersing over nearly flat terrain. Emphasis is on convective and high-wind conditions. The meteorological component is based on observational and modeling studies of the planetary boundary layer. The dispersion estimates for the convective boundary layer (CBL) were developed from laboratory experiments and field studies and incorporate convective scaling, i.e., the convective velocity scale, w*, and the CBL height, h, which are the relevant velocity and length scales of the turbulence. The model has a separate component to handle the dispersion of highly buoyant plumes that remain near the top of the CBL and resist downward mixing. For convective conditions, the vertical concentration distribution is non-Gaussian, but for neutral and stable conditions it is assumed to be Gaussian. The HPDM performance is assessed with extensive ground-level concentration measurements around the Kincaid, Illinois, and Bul...

Optical Scattering and Microphysical Properties of Subvisual Cirrus Clouds, and Climatic Implications

Abstract: The optical and microphysical properties of subvisual cirrus clouds are derived from ground-based polarization lidar, shortwave radiation flux, and solar corona measurements of two approximately 0.75 km deep cirrus located near the tropopause. The first cloud produced no visual manifestations under excellent viewing conditions, and the second appeared to be a persistent aircraft contrail that was generally visible except in the zenith direction. Average lidar linear depolarization ratios and volume backscatter coefficients for the two clouds were 0.19 and 0.35, and 0.6 x 10 to the -3 and 1.4 x 10 to the -3 /km sr, respectively. It is estimated that the zenith-subvisual cirrus contained ice crystals of 25-micron effective diameter at a mean concentration of 25/1 and ice mass content of 0.2 mg/cu m. The threshold cloud optical thickness for visual-versus-invisible cirrus, derived from both broadband shortwave flux and 0.694 micrometer lidar data, is found to be tau sub c approx equal 0.03. Such tau values are comparable to those of 5 to 10 km deep stratospheric aerosol clouds of volcanic origin and polar stratospheric clouds, which are episodic in nature. Hence, we conclude that if these clouds are a fairly common feature of the upper troposphere, as recent SAGE satellite measurements would suggest, then the impact of natural and contrail subvisual cirrus on the planet's radiation balance may be relatively significant.

Cloud Identification for ERBE Radiative Flux Retrieval

Abstract: A maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) technique to the problem of cloud identification using coarse resolution broadband satellite data is developed and tested using simulated satellite observations. The results suggest that, in the determination of cloud conditions for the inversion of satellite-measured radiances to fluxes, the MLE method is an improvement over a Lambertian earth assumption and the clear/cloud threshold used in the inversion of Nimbus 3 and Nimbus 7 data. The use of the MLE method in the operational processing of Earth Radiation Budget Experiment scanner data is considered.

Aircraft Icing Caused by Large Supercooled Droplets

Abstract: The characteristic of aircraft icing environments containing large supercooled droplets are described. Substantial loss in rate of climb capability can result from less than 10 minutes duration in conditions where fewer than 0.1–1 cm−3 of droplets 30–400 μm in diameter are present. These conditions are found to have a greater effect than those where the liquid water was confined to smaller (generally less than about 30 μm diameter) droplets. Measurements from research aircraft flying in regions containing these large droplets, located in the Sierra Nevada in California, near Amarillo, Texas, and in northern Arizona are presented. Temperatures ranged from −5.5° to −9.4°C in 13 regions. The sizes of the droplets responsible for performance loss varied with each encounter but ranged from tens to hundreds of micrometers, and these were accompanied by few to no ice crystals. Two case studies are examined in further detail, including the weather conditions present at the time of the encounters. The met...

Drop-Size Distributions Associated with Intense Rainfall

Abstract: The probability of occurrence of extreme rainfall rates is reviewed. The drop-size distributions associated with a range of high rainfall rates are examined using data from tropical storms and hurricanes. Mean drop-size distributions are presented for a range of high rainfall rates, as well as a Γ-distribution fit to the entire set of normalized drop-size distributions. This fit forms the basis for a model drop-size distribution for intense rain. The goodness of fit of the model is examined by comparing it with independent drop-camera measurements of high-rain-rate distributions from several geographic locations. The slope of exponential fits to the distributions are examined for constancy with rainfall rate, and are generally found to decrease with increasing rainfall rate.

An investigation of mesoscale flows induced by vegetation inhomogeneities using an evapotranspiration model calibrated against HAPEX-MOBILHY data.

Abstract: Many recent studies have suggested that heterogeneities in soil properties or vegetation characteristics many trigger mesoscale circulations in planetary boundary layer (PBL). Unfortunately, these flows appear to be very sensitive to the choice of the model characteristics and therefore require a careful calibration of the parameterization representing the vegetation/atmosphere interface. In this paper, the micrometeorological data from the HAPEX-MOBILHY field experiment are used to calibrate an evapotranspiration parameterization scheme over three types of dense vegetation typical of western Europe. This parameterization is then used a 2D mesoscale model to investigate the atmospheric response to a discontinuity in vegetation type (cereal crop to conifer forest). The results show a significant circulation when the soil is moist, associated with substantial PBL modification, whereas only a negligible atmospheric response is obtained when the soil is dry in the conifer forest). The results show a ...

Influence of External Meteorology on Nocturnal Valley Drainage Winds.

Abstract: Thermally driven local circulation in valleys has been studied for many years with the result that the underlying physics are reasonably well understood. ASCOT experiments of the early 1980s were formulated to help quantify predictive models and to apply the resulting methods to transport and dispersion of airborne materials. During the performance and analysis of experiments in two quite different valleys, it became clear that important aspects of the structure of the valley circulation depend on subtle differences in the ambient atmospheric conditions. In this paper we interpret nocturnal drainage structure in terms of ambient characteristics. We are able to describe changes in the depth of drainage and volume flux in terms of the influence of external wind and radiative effects on the collection of cool air in a valley airshed, and on erosion of an established drainage by turbulent entrainment. We describe evidence for internal buoyancy waves and rotors that can have a major effect on transpor...

Surface Energy and Radiation Balance Systems: General Description and Improvements

Abstract: Surface evaluation of sensible and latent heat flux densities and the components of the radiation balance were desired for various vegetative surfaces during the ASCOT84 experiment to compare with modeled results and to relate these values to drainage winds. Five battery operated data systems equipped with sensors to determine the above values were operated for 105 station days during the ASCOT84 experiment. The Bowen ratio energy balance technique was used to partition the available energy into the sensible and latent heat flux densities. A description of the sensors and battery operated equipment used to collect and process the data is presented. In addition, improvements and modifications made since the 1984 experiments are given. Details of calculations of soil heat flow at the surface and an alternate method to calculate sensible and latent heat flux densities are provided.

Numerical Studies of Urban Planetary Boundary-Layer Structure under Realistic Synoptic Conditions

Abstract: The Pennsylvania State University (PSU)/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) mesoscale model was modified and used to simulate the evolution of meteorological conditions in the vicinity of St. Louis, Missouri, from near sunrise to noon on 25 July 1975. Observations obtained during the METROMEX (Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment) and RAPS (Regional Air Pollution Study) field programs were available for comparison with modeled conditions. The PSU/NCAR model used a nested grid with two-way interaction between the coarse mesh (7.5 km) and the fine mesh (2.5 km), where the fine domain covered the city and its immediate suburban and rural surroundings. Realistic three-dimensionally variable initial and lateral boundary conditions were obtained from the observations so that the numerical experiments could be used for quantitative evaluation of certain urban effects. After simulation of the actual conditions (control experiment), the importance of a number of processes on the urban planet...

Observation of atmospheric fronts using Raman lidar moisture measurements

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a field program using a ground-based Raman lidar system to observe changes in moisture profiles as a cold and a warm front passed over the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. The lidar operating only during darkness is capable of providing continuous high vertical resolution profiles of water vapor mixing ratio and aerosol scattering ratio from near the surface to about 7 km altitude. The lidar data acquired on three consecutive nights from shortly after sunset to shortly before sunrise, along with upper air data from specially launched rawinsondes, have provided a unique visualization of the detailed structure of the two fronts.

The Role of Surface Friction in Downslope Windstorms

Abstract: Numerical simulations of the 11 January 1972 windstorm in Boulder, Colorado, were carded out using a hydrostatic model with a turbulent kinetic energy parameterization to investigate the role of fictional effects in the development of nonlinear mountain waves. Sensitivity tests to the roughness length specification and to the turbulent mixing and dissipation length formulations show that surface friction delays the onset of the strong surface winds and also prevents the downstream propagation of the zone of maximum windspeed. Shear production within convectively stable regions is the dominant mechanism for the production of the turbulent kinetic energy. Moreover, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that a hydrostatic amplification mechanism is capable of accounting for the development of strong downslope winds.

Deep valley radiation and surface energy budget microclimates. Part I: Radiation

Abstract: Solar and longwave radiation data are presented for five sites in Colorado's 650 m deep semiarid Brush Creek Valley (39°32′N, 108°24′W) during September 1984. During the sunlit period of a nearly clear day, individual sites received 0.73–0.81 of the theoretical extraterrestrial solar radiation. Incoming solar radiation increased with elevation in the valley. Direct radiation made up 0.86– 0.88 of the downward shortwave flux. On average, 0.12–0.21 of the incoming shortwave radiation was reflected at the individual sites. Strong variations in reflected solar radiation and outgoing longwave radiation occurred from site to site. Because of the large direct beam component, aspect and inclination angles of the valley surfaces had a strong effect on the solar radiation received. Contrasts between a southwest- and northeast-facing sidewall were significant. Shading from surrounding topography produced inter-site differences in both instantaneous and daily total radiation. Inter-site differences in most d...

A self-consistency approach to improve microwave rainfall rate estimation from space

Abstract: A multichannel statistical approach is used to retrieve rainfall rates from the brightness temperature T(B) observed by passive microwave radiometers flown on a high-altitude NASA aircraft. T(B) statistics are based upon data generated by a cloud radiative model. This model simulates variabilities in the underlying geophysical parameters of interest, and computes their associated T(B) in each of the available channels. By further imposing the requirement that the observed T(B) agree with the T(B) values corresponding to the retrieved parameters through the cloud radiative transfer model, the results can be made to agree quite well with coincident radar-derived rainfall rates. Some information regarding the cloud vertical structure is also obtained by such an added requirement. The applicability of this technique to satellite retrievals is also investigated. Data which might be observed by satellite-borne radiometers, including the effects of nonuniformly filled footprints, are simulated by the cloud radiative model for this purpose.

A Numerical Model Study of Nocturnal Drainage Flows with Strong Wind and Temperature Gradients

Abstract: A second-moment turbulence-closure model described in Yamada and Bunker is used to simulate nocturnal drainage flows observed during the 1984 ASCOT field expedition in Brush Creek, Colorado. In order to simulate the observed strong wind directional shear and temperature gradients, two modifications are added to the model. The strong wind directional shear was maintained by introducing a “nudging” term in the equation of motion to guide the modeled winds in the layers above the ridge top toward the observed wind direction. The second modification was accomplished by reformulating the conservation equation for the potential temperature in such a way that only the deviation from the horizontally averaged value was prognostically computed. The vegetation distribution used in this study is undoubtedly crude. Nevertheless, the present simulation suggests that tall tree canopy can play an important role in producing inhomogeneous wind distribution, particularly in the levels below the canopy top.

Retrieval of Cloud Parameters from Satellite Sounder Data: A Simulation Study

Abstract: Estimates of cloud-top pressure and effective fractional cloud cover may be retrieved from satellite infrared sounder data. This paper presents the results of a simulation study which provides some insights into the relative performance of different retrieval methods and of different combinations of spectral channels. The “minimum residual method,” a variant of a technique described previously by other authors, is presented. It is applied here to groups of HIRS-2 channels and some aspects of its performance for different combinations of channels are examined using simulated data. It is also compared with the “radiance rationing method.” Calculations suggest that the minimum residual method is comparable in performance to the radiance rationing method for high cloud but better for midlevel cloud. The relationship (and relative performance) of these methods to that used operationally to assign pressures to cloud tracers in Meteosat data is also discussed. The methods presented are for retrieving cl...

Hudson Valley Fog Environments

Abstract: Observations of 14 cases of radiation fog in the Hudson River valley in New York State are presented. Our emphasis is to connect the fog prediction problem to mechanisms in the nocturnal boundary layer that influence heat and moisture balances. Surface layer and boundary layer fogs are distinguished by the difference in dominant terms in the saturation specific humidity deficit budget. Fogs that persist longer than approximately 30 minutes are most frequently thicker than 50 m. The ultimate depth to which the fog grows is shown to be determined by initial conditions at sunset and by subsequent evolution of winds in the nocturnal boundary layer, as well as by surface transports and radiative cooling. Estimates of the surface and boundary layer heat budget are presented. Two new phenomena are identified: 1) A jump in specific humidity occurring during the early evening transition that shortens the time required to reach surface layer saturation; and 2) along-valley jetlike winds with maxima near 10...

The Potential of Infrared Satellite Data for the Retrieval of Saharan-Dust Optical Depth over Africa

Abstract: Optical depth of Saharan dust derived from photometric measurements made during the dry season at a Sahelian site (Niamey, Republic of Niger) is compared with METEOSAT-2 radiance in the 10.5–12.5 μm channel for different times of the daily cycle. The ability of retrieving dual optical depth using the outgoing radiance of infrared atmospheric window is clearly demonstrated for the middle of the day. Results obtained with nighttime data through a relation between dust optical depth and visibility are also discussed. The major causes of error are identified and quantitatively estimated.

Effects of Cloud Seeding in West Texas

Abstract: The effect of randomized seeding with droppable silver iodide (AgI) flares in West Texas during the Southwest Cooperative Program is addressed. Attention is focused on individual convective cells and on the small mesoscale convective clusters that contain the cells. Analysis of three-dimensional, volume-scan, C-band radar data using sophisticated tracking software indicates that AgI seeding increased the areas, durations and rain volumes of the cells. The radar-estimated rainfall volume at bases of the AgI-treated cells was more than double the rain volume from the cells that received simulated treatment. This result is significant at the 3% significance level using rerandomization procedures. The apparent effect of seeding and its significance increases slightly when control cells are incorporated into the analysis. The effect of treatment on maximum cell height, as measured by radar, generally averaged less than 5%. In moving from the cell scale to the larger sca;es, it was found that cell merg...

Mesoγ-Scale Distribution of Orographic Precipitation: Numerical Study and Comparison with Precipitation Derived from Radar Measurements

Abstract: On the assumption that moisture convergence due to mechanical uplifting approximately equals the orographic precipitation, the mesoγ-scale rainfall distributions over mountainous regions in Israel are investigated. The simulated distributions are compared to rainfall observations both from raingages and from radar reflectivities. The mean error in the predicted rainfall on scale of 2 km was ±8.4% for mean annual normals and 15%–20% for three case studies. It is suggest that orographic rainfall on the small mesoscale is highly predictable with the adiabatic assumption that the uplifting is determined by V·ΔZs, where V is the horizontal wind encountering the mountain and Zs, is the topographic elevation. It is also illustrated that the climatological observed rainfall distribution could be complemented by the model at locations where sufficient observations were not available. By comparison of the model simulation with the radar-derived rainfall, the considerable effect that a change in the wind di...

A Proposed Microburst Nowcasting Procedure Using Single-Doppler Radar

Abstract: Thirty-one microburst-producing storms from northweast Colorado were studied using single and multiple Doppler radar for the purpose of identifying radar signatures that indicated the development of a downdraft capable of producing a microburst. Descending reflectivity cores, increasing radial convergence within cloud, rotation, and reflectivity notches, were found to be microburst precursors, appearing typically 2-6 min prior to initial surface outflow. Three conceptual models have been drawn, based on the 31 events, to summarize the radar signatures of importance in low, moderate, and high-reflectivity microburst-producing storms. A forecaster-computer environment is proposed to allow the forecaster to readily view radar reflectivity and Doppler velocity information in both unprocessed and analyzed form. Use of multiimage radar displays and time-height profiles of quantitative radar estimates of reflectivity and radial shear are suggested to provide an environment where rapid progress can be made in developing techniques to nowcast microbursts.

The impact of summer rainfall on the temperature gradient along the United States-Mexico border

Abstract: The international border running through the Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona and northern Sonora is marked by a sharp discontinuity in albedo and grass cover. The observed differences in surface properties are a result of long-term, severe overgrazing of the Mexican lands. Recently, investigators have shown the Mexican side of the border to have higher surface and air temperatures when compared to adjacent areas in the United State. The differences in temperatures appear to be more associated with differential evapotranspiration rates than with albedo changes along the border. In this study, the impact of summer rainfall on the observed seasonal and daily gradient in maximum temperature is examined. On a seasonal time scale, the temperature gradient increases with higher moisture levels, probably due to a vegetative response on the United States' side of the border; at the daily level, the gradient in maximum temperature decreases after a rain event as evaporation rates equalize between the countries. The results suggest that temperature differences between vegetated and overgrazed landscapes in arid areas are highly dependent upon the amount of moisture available for evapotranspiration.

Mean Structure of the Nocturnal Drainage Flow in a Deep Valley

Abstract: Wind and temperature data collected by an instrumented tethered balloon and a Doppler lidar in a deep valley are used to investigate the mean properties of the nocturnal drainage flow down the valley on four nights when the wind at ridgetop had an up-valley component. We examine the vertical structure of temperature and the vertical and horizontal structure of the drainage wind. An empirical description of the wind field is derived and used to estimate the mass flux resulting from the drainage flow. Mean properties of the flow are presented and relationships among some of the parameters are examined.

Analysis of Polar Clouds from Satellite Imagery Using Pattern Recognition and a Statistical Cloud Analysis Scheme

Abstract: The analysis of cloud cover in the polar regions from satellite data is more difficult than at other latitudes because the visible and thermal contrasts between the cloud cover and the underlying surface are frequently quite small. Pattern recognition has proven to be a useful tool in detecting and identifying several cloud types over snow and ice. Here a pattern recognition algorithm in combined with a hybrid histogram-spatial coherence (HHSC) scheme to derive cloud classification and fractional coverage, surface and cloud visible albedos and infrared brightness temperatures from multispectral AVHRR satellite imagery. The accuracy of the cloud fraction estimates were between 0.05 and 0.26, based on the mean absolute difference between the automated and manual nephanalyses of nearly 1000 training samples. The HHSC demonstrated greater accuracy at estimating cloud friction than three different threshold. methods. An important result is that the prior classification of a sample may significantly im...

The Role of Valley Geometry and Energy Budget in the Formation of Nocturnal Valley Winds

Abstract: Diurnally varying up and down-valley winds are a commonly observed feature of mountain meteorology. These winds are produced through the heating and cooling of the land surface but direct connections from the topography to the winds have been difficult to establish. A concept has been proposed which theoretically relates the energy budget and valley geometry to the rate of atmospheric cooling in the valley. The gradient of the along-valley cooling rate will then lead to an along-valley pressure gradient which provides a topographic control of the wind. The ratio of valley width to cross-section area is shown to be the critical topographic parameter which is proportional to the valley cooling rate. Net radiation and the ground heat flux are also critical to the valley cooling rate. An example is given which illustrates that this new concept can produce pressure gradients about 60% larger than the mountain-plain mechanism. Observations of wind and temperature in three valleys in Colorado which incl...

The Accuracy of RASS Temperature Measurements

Abstract: Temperature measurements obtained using radiosondes and Radio Acoustic Sounding Systems (RASS) are compared to assess the utility of the RASS technique for meteorological studies. The agreement is generally excellent; rms temperature differences are about 1.0°C for comparisons during a variety of meteorological conditions. Observations taken under ideal circumstances indicate that a precision of about 0.2°C is achievable with the RASS technique. A processor being designed for RASS should allow routine temperature measurements approaching this precision.

Experimental Design of the 1984 ASCOT Field Study

Abstract: During September and October of 1984 the Department of Energy's Atmospheric Studies in Complex Terrain program conducted an intensive field study in the Brush Creek Valley of western Colorado. The overall objective of the study was to enhance the understanding of pollutant transport and diffusion associated with valley flows. Data collections were designed to investigate nocturnal and morning transition wind, turbulence, and temperature fields in the valley, in its tributaries, and on its side-slopes, and how these are affected by the free stream conditions above the valley. The release and sampling of atmospheric tracers were used to study transport and diffusion. The experimental design of this study is presented.

The Nocturnal Boundary Layer: Model Calculations Compared with Observations

Abstract: The structure and evolution of the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) is simulated using a model which includes the transfer of energy by radiation and turbulence. The radiation scheme is an accurate narrow band model which simulates the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by water vapor and carbon dioxide. For the transfer of energy by turbulence a model was used in which a prognostic equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is solved together with a diagnostic length scale equation for the turbulence. We adapted the “force restore method” to account for the transfer of energy through the soil. For the vegetation layer a simple scheme was used to describe the energy flux. The performance of this combined model is compared with detailed observations of the mean thermodynamic and turbulence structure throughout the NBL (up to 200 m) for two cloudless nights in 1978. These observations were collected at the meteorological observational site near the village of Cabauw in the Netherlands. Duri...