Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Psychology in 1993"

What Is Coefficient Alpha? An Examination of Theory and Applications

Abstract: Coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951) is certainly one of the most important and pervasive statistics in research involving test construction and use. A review of the Social Sciences Citations Index for the literature from 1966 to 1990 revealed that Cronbach's (1951) article had been cited approximately 60 times per year and in a total of 278 different journals. In addition to the areas of psychology in which one may expect to see alpha used, such as educational, industrial, social, clinical, child, community, and abnormal psychology, this list of journals included representatives from experimental psychology, sociology, statistics, medicine, counseling, nursing, economics, political science, criminology, gerontology, broadcasting, anthropology, and accounting. In spite of its widespread use, however, there is some confusion as to the true meaning and proper interpretation of the statistic. In this article I address this confusion in two ways. First, a theoretical discussion of alpha is presented. This includes some of the many statements that have been made about alpha and an attempt to integrate these statements. Second, I take a more practical approach in which the interpretation of alpha is examined by observing the changes in alpha as the number of items and interitem correlations are manipulated.

Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization.

Abstract: he authors tested the generalizability of J. P. Meyer and N. J. Allen's (1991) 3-component model of organizational commitment to the domain of occupational commitment. Measures of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to occupation were developed and used to test hypotheses concerning their differential relations with antecedent and consequence variables. Confirmatory factor analyses conducted on data collected from samples of student and registered nurses revealed that the 3 component measures of occupational commitment were distinguishable from one another and from measures of the 3 components of organizational commitment

Transformational leadership, transactional leadership, locus of control, and support for innovation: key predictors of consolidated-business-unit performance

Abstract: The authors used measures of leadership, locus of control, and support for innovation to predict the consolidated-unit performance of 78 managers. Results revealed that 3 transformational-leadership measures were associated with a higher internal locus of control and significantly and positively predicted business-unit performance over a 1-year interval. Transactional measures of leadership, including contingent reward and management by exception (active and passive), were each negatively related to business-unit performance. Causal relationships between the transformational-leadership behaviors and unit performance were moderated by the level of support for innovation in the business unit

rwg: An assessment of within-group interrater agreement.

Abstract: Schmidt and Hunter (1989) critiqued the within-group interrater reliability statistic (r wg ) described by James, Demaree, and Wolf (1984). Kozlowski and Hattrup (1992) responded to the Schmidt and Hunter critique and argued that r wg is a suitable index of interrater agreement. This article focuses on the interpretation of r wg as a measure of agreement among judges' ratings of a single target. A new derivation of r wg is given that underscores this interpretation

Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation.

Abstract: Although training evaluation is recognized as an important component of the instructional design model, there are no theoretically based models of training evaluation. This article attempts to move toward such a model by developing a classification scheme for evaluating learning outcomes. Learning constructs are derived from a variety of research domains, such as cognitive, social, and instructional psychology and human factors. Drawing from this research, we propose cognitive, skill-based, and affective learning outcomes (relevant to training) and recommend potential evaluation measures. The learning outcomes and associated evaluation measures are organized into a classification scheme. Requirements for providing construct-oriented evidence of validity for the scheme are also discussed

Commitment and employee behavior: comparison of affective commitment and continuance commitment with perceived organizational support.

Abstract: The social exchange view of commitment (R. Eisenberger, R. Huntington, S. Hutchison, & D. Sowa, 1986) suggests that employees' perceptions of the organization's commitment to them (perceived organizational support, or POS) creates feelings of obligation to the employer, which enhances employees' work behavior. The authors addressed the question of whether POS or the more traditional commitment concepts of affective commitment (AC) and continuance commitment (CC) were better predictors of employee behavior (organizational citizenship and impression management). Participants were 383 employees and their managers. Although results showed that both AC and POS were positively related to organizational citizenship and that CC was negatively related to organizationa l citizenship, POS was the best predictor. These findings support the social exchange view that POS creates feelings of obligation that contribute to citizenship behaviors. In addition, CC was unrelated, whereas AC and POS were positively correlated, with some impression management behaviors.

A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges.

Abstract: The authors investigated the first 6 months that 166 newly hired employees and their immediate supervisors worked together. Expectations, perceived similarity, liking, demographic similarity, and performance were examined as determinants of leader-member exchanges (LMXs). Leader and member expectations of each other assessed in the first 5 days in the life of the dyad predicted LMXs at 2 weeks and at 6 weeks following the 1st day of the dyads' existence. Member expectations of leaders also predicted LMXs at 6 months. Following nearly the same pattern, perceived similarity and liking from both the leaders'and members' perspectives predicted LMXs at most time periods. Demographic similarity between leaders and members had no significant effects on LMX development, and subordinate performance ratings were relatively less important in predicting LMX than were affective variables

Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance.

Abstract: The authors conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis based on 665 validity coefficients across 576,460 data points to investigate whether integrity test validities are generalizable and to estimate differences in validity due to potential moderating influences. Results indicate that integrity test validities are substantial for predicting job performance and counterproductive behaviors on the job, such as theft, disciplinary problems, and absenteeism. The estimated mean operational predictive validity of integrity tests for predicting supervisory ratings of job performance is.41. Results from predictive validity studies conducted on applicants and using external criterion measures (i.e., excluding self-reports) indicate that integrity tests predict the broad criterion of organizationally disruptive behaviors better than they predict employee theft alone

Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance.

Abstract: In this study we investigated the moderating role of autonomy on the relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and supervisor ratings of job performance. On the basis of data from 146 managers, results indicated that two dimensions of personality, Conscientiousness (r =.25) and Extraversion (r =.14), were significantly related to job performance. Consistent with our expectations, the validity of Conscientiousness and Extraversion was greater for managers in jobs high in autonomy compared with those in jobs low in autonomy. The validity of Agreeableness was also higher in high-autonomy jobs compared with low-autonomy ones, but the correlation was negative

Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting.

Abstract: The authors used 91 sales representatives to test a process model that assessed the relationship of conscientiousness to job performance through mediating motivational (goal-setting) variables. Linear structural equation modeling showed that sales representatives high in conscientiousness are more likely to set goals and are more likely to be committed to goals, which in turn is associated with greater sales volume and higher supervisory ratings of job performance. Results also showed that conscientiousness is directly related to supervisory ratings. Consistent with previous research, results showed that ability was also related to supervisory ratings of job performance and, to a lesser extent, sales volume

Another Look at the Job Satisfaction-Life Satisfaction Relationship

Abstract: The relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction has been heavily researched over the years. In spite of this research interest, results have not proved conclusive in demonstrating the causal nature of the relationship. In the present study, a causal model was hypothesized and tested that involved simultaneous consideration of cross-sectional and longitudinal effects between job and life satisfaction. This type of analysis has not previously been conducted and allows the strongest conclusions to date regarding the causality between these constructs. Results based on a national probability sample of workers indicated that job and life satisfaction were significantly and reciprocally related. The cross-sectional results suggested a relatively strong relationship between job and life satisfaction, but the longitudinal results suggested a weaker relationship over a 5-year period, particularly with respect to the effect of job satisfaction on life satisfaction. The meaning of these results in the context of past research on the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship is discussed. Recently, Tail, Padgett, and Baldwin (1989) provided the first meta-analytic estimate of the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Using correlations from 34 studies, Tail et al. (1989) estimated the average corrected correlation between the constructs to be .44. The authors concluded their review with this comment: "On the basis of the substantial relationship between job and life satisfaction documented here, further explanatory research of this nature is now clearly warranted" (p. 505). In a recent review of the literature, Rain, Lane, and Steiner (1991) held that although Tail et al.'s study was useful in providing an overall assessment of the job satisfactionlife satisfaction relationship, it did not address the direction of causality between the constructs. Rain et al. argued that more efforts investigating the causality between job and life satisfaction were needed. Thus, despite extensive research, the critical question concerning what the direction of influence between job and life satisfaction is remains unanswered. The correlation estimated in Tait et al.'s (1989) meta-analysis suggests that a positive relationship exists, but this study provided no information regarding whether job satisfaction causes life satisfaction, life satisfaction causes job satisfaction, or the two constructs are mutually causative. A causal influence from life satisfaction to job satisfaction is supportive of the dispositional perspective (Judge & Hulin, in press; Judge & Locke, 1993; Staw, Bell, & Clausen,

Longitudinal study of the effects of information seeking on newcomer socialization

Abstract: In this study, the effects of information seeking on newcomer socialization are assessed. The results suggest that by seeking information, organizational newcomers can facilitate the socialization process. The frequency with which 135 new staff accountants sought specific types of information during their first 6 months of employment was related to how well they had mastered their job, defined their role, learned about their organization's culture, and become socially integrated. In contrast to findings from research focusing on the organization's role in socialization, these findings suggest that newcomers are proactive information seekers who take an active role in adjusting to their new environment

Complex interdependence in task-performing groups

Abstract: This study proposed a model of work group performance based on the consequences of complex interdependence (CI), which is defined as the interactive effects of task, goal, and feedback combinations. The study consisted of a 4 (task interdependence: pooled, sequential, reciprocal, or team) × 2 (goal interdependence: individual or group) × 2 (feedback interdependence: individual or group) completely crossed factorial design using 118 three-person groups working in a laboratory setting on a performance appraisal task. The results of group-level analyses demonstrated the impact of CI on the perceived effectiveness of group task strategy. In turn, task strategy and intragroup conflict partially mediated the effects of CI on group performance quantity and quality

Investigation of the factors that influence employees' participation in development activities.

Abstract: In a field study, the factors that influence employees' participation in development activities are investigated. The proposed model hypothesized that the influence of self-efficacy and work environment perceptions on development activity is mediated by learning attitudes, perceptions of development needs, and perceived benefits. Attitudinal and perceptional data and self-report and objective measures of development activity were collected from employees in health maintenance (N = 343), financial services (N = 196), and public sector engineering firms (N = 496). No statistical support was found for the proposed mediated relation. However, motivation to learn, perception of benefits, and work environment perceptions had significant unique effects on development activity

Self-efficacy training to speed reemployment: Helping people to help themselves.

Abstract: The impact of training designed to boost general self-efficacy (GSE) on job-search activity and on reemployment was assessed among 66 persons unemployed for up to 18 weeks. Randomly assigned experimental participants attended 8 behavioral-modeling workshop sessions over 2 1/2 weeks. The manipulation check showed that training boosted GSE as intended. The workshop also increased job-search activity, confirming the hypothesis that raising GSE motivates intensification of effort. The treatment increased reemployment among participants low in initial GSE but not among those with high GSE. The greater plasticity of individuals low in GSE suggests that the practical utility of training is moderated by initiaI GSE. The authors conclude that individuals of low GSE should be given priority access to scarce behavioral-modeling training resources

Computer brainstorms: More heads are better than one.

Abstract: Research has consistently found nominal group brainstorming (in which members work separately without communicating) to be superior to brainstorming in which group members interact verbally. This article presents the results of an experiment that found the reverse to be true for computer-mediated electronic brainstorming. In this experiment, 12-member electronically interacting groups generated more ideas than did 12-member nominal groups, and there were no differences between 6-member electronic and 6-member nominal groups. The authors attribute these results to the ability of electronic brainstorming to introduce few process losses(production blocking, evaluation apprehension, and free riding) while enabling process gains (synergy and the avoidance of redundant ideas)

New measures of job control, cognitive demand,and production responsibility

Abstract: Recent research has highlighted several job characteristics salient to employee well-being and behavior for which there are no adequate generally applicable measures. These include timing and method control, monitoring and problem-solving demand, and production responsibility. In this article, an attempt to develop measures of these constructs provided encouraging results. Confirmatory factor analyses applied to data from 2 samples of shop-floor employees showed a consistent fit to a common 5-factor measurement model. Scales corresponding to each of the dimensions showed satisfactory internal and test–retest reliabilities. As expected, the scales also discriminated between employees in different jobs and employees working with contrasting technologies.

Organizational attractiveness: an interactionist perspective

Abstract: We adopted an interactionist perspective to investigate how the personality characteristics of self-esteem (SE) and need for achievement (nAch) moderated the influences of organizational characteristics on individuals' attraction to firms. Subjects read an organization description that manipulated reward structure, centralization, organization size, and geographical dispersion of plants and offices and indicated their attraction to the organization. Although subjects were more attracted to firms that were decentralized and that based pay on performance, results supported the interactionist perspective. Subjects with low SE were more attracted to decentralized and larger firms than high SE subjects. Subjects high in nAch were more attracted to organizations that rewarded performance rather than seniority. Finally, organisation size influenced attraction differently for individuals high and low in nAch

The role of negative affectivity in understanding relations between self-reports of stressors and strains: A comment on the applied psychology literature.

Abstract: On the basis of a brief review of the health, organizational, and personality psychology literatures supportive of the expectation that observed relations between self-reports of stressors and strains are influenced by the mood-dispositional dimension negative affectivity (NA), reanalyses of four data sets were conducted. The results of these reanalyses, contrary to the assertions of several authors in the applied psychology literature, offered further support for the hypothesized "nuisance" properties of NA in studies involving relations between self-reports of stressors and strain. A discussion of how NA and other mood-dispositional dimensions may be of interest to investigators concerned with relations between self-reports of any condition of employment and any affective state of workers is presented.

The Big Five in Personnel Selection: Factor Structure in Applicant and Nonapplicant Populations

Abstract: Recent personnel selection studies have focused on the 5-factor model of personality. However, the stability of this factor structure in job applicant populations has not been determined. Conceptual and empirical evidence has suggested that similar factor structures should not be assumed across testing situations that have different purposes or consequences. A study was conducted that used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the fit of the 5-factor model to NEO Five-Factor Inventory (P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1989) test data from student and applicant samples. The 5-factor structure fit the student data but did not fit the applicant data. The existence of an ideal-employee factor in the applicant sample is suggested

Panel analysis of the moderating effects of commitment on job satisfaction, intent to quit, and health following organizational change

Abstract: The authors examined the moderating effects of organizational commitment on the relationship of stress with job satisfaction, intent to quit, and health during organizational turmoil. Panel data were provided by hospital employees surveyed before and after a major divisional consolidation. Findings indicated that commitment buffered the relationship between stress and job displeasure (a canonically derived variate combining residualized job dissatisfaction, intent to quit, and irritation). Stress increased job displeasure only when commitment was low.

Enhancement of children's self-esteem through social support training for youth sport coaches.

Abstract: The authors examined the impact of coaching behaviors on players' self-enhancement processes. Eight baseball coaches attended a preseason workshop designed to increase their supportiveness and instructional effectiveness. Behavioral guidelines were presented and modeled. A no-treatment control group had 10 coaches. Boys (N = 152) in both groups were interviewed pre- and postseason. Trained coaches differed from controls in player-perceived behaviors in accordance with the guidelines. They were evaluated more positively by their players, their players had more fun, and their teams exhibited a higher level of attraction among players, despite the fact that their teams did not differ from controls in won-lost records. Consistent with a self-esteem enhancement model, findings showed that boys with low self-esteem who played for the trained coaches exhibited significant increases in general self-esteem; low self-esteem youngsters in the control group did not. Language: en

Comparing Correlations Based on Individual-Level and Aggregated Data

Abstract: Researchers are often interested in comparing correlations between variables at different levels of analysis (e.g., individual and organizational) to determine if the same relationship holds across the levels. A special situation emerges when correlations at higher levels are based on aggregated data. This article contains an analysis of the nature of the relationship between correlations based on individual-level data and correlations based on aggregated data from individuals. In particular, the conditions under which differences between individual correlations and correlations based on aggregates represent statistical artifacts or meaningful differences are explored. In recent years, levels-of-analysis issues and understanding relationships between levels (e.g., individual, group, and organizational) have become important themes in organizational research (e.g., Dansereau, Alluto, & Yammarino, 1984; Dansereau & Markham, 1987; Glick, 1985; Click & Roberts, 1984; James, 1982; Mossholder & Bedeian, 1983; Roberts, Hulin, & Rousseau, 1978). As a result, some researchers have begun to hypothesize that stronger relationships between variables may be found at higher levels of analysis. For example, Schneider (1985) suggested that research is needed to assess relationships at the group or organizational level in many areas that have traditionally been studied at the individual level, such as motivation and leadership, leadership and organizational performance, and absenteeism and attitudes. Comparisons of relationships between variables at different levels of analysis (e.g., individual and organizational) necessitates collection of data at each of the different levels. Oftentimes, researchers do not have a global index of the organiza

The impact of consideration of issues and motivational orientation on group negotiation process and outcome.

Abstract: In 2 studies the authors tested the effects of motivational orientation (cooperative vs individualistic) and issue consideration (simultaneous vs sequential) on the negotiation process and outcome quality attained by 4-person groups engaged in a multi-issue negotiation Study 1 (n = 84) showed that both a cooperative orientation and simultaneous issue consideration improved outcome quality Simultaneous consideration of issues also increased the likelihood of reaching agreement Study 2, focusing on the negotiation process, showed that cooperative groups were more trusting and engaged in less argumentation Simultaneous issue-consideration groups exchanged more information and had greater insight into the other parties' priorities A lag sequential analysis showed that groups with a cooperative orientation overcame the limits of discussing issues sequentially by engaging norms of reciprocity and mutuality

Effect of dysfunctional thought processes on subjective well-being and job satisfaction.

Abstract: Although the dispositional approach to job satisfaction has received a good deal of recent attention, a fundamental deficiency in past dispositional research is a failure to use existing theories to explain why individuals are unhappy and dissatisfied with their jobs E A Locke (1976), T A Judge (1992), and T A Judge and C L Hulin (in press) suggested that thinking processes should be studied in relation to job satisfaction This study tested the thesis that the cognitive theory of depression, which focuses on individuals' thought processes, will help in understanding both subjective well-being and job satisfaction A confirmatory model involving subjective well-being, job satisfaction, dysfunctional thought processes, and other relevant influences was hypothesized and tested by using a stratified random sample of university employees Ratings were obtained from 2 sources to reduce single-source bias The results indicated strong support for the overall model and for the adverse effect of dysfunctional thought processes In a recent review of the literature on dispositional sources of job satisfaction, Judge (1992) argued that much of the research linking dispositional states to job satisfaction is atheoretical in nature Virtually no dispositional research has attempted to explain, drawing from existing theories of social cognition or attitude formation, why individuals are unhappy in general or dissatisfied with their jobs Such a deficiency in past dispositional research is regrettable, because established theories from personality and cognitive psychology may have a great deal to offer in terms of explaining how affective states are formed There are probably valid reasons why dispositional research has not been theoretically based For example, it is common for research to be inductive in its formative stages, when the attempt often is to establish the existence of a phenomenon rather than its etiology Although past dispositional research has implicitly recognized the role cognitive variables can play in emotional states, the perspective is now at a stage where theoretical concepts need to be used more explicitly The importance of understanding the psychology behind dispositional effects on job satisfaction was recently emphasized by Weiss (1991) Locke (1976) and Judge and Hulin (in press) suggested that thinking processes may influence subjective well-being and job satisfaction, although they did not propose an actual theory A

Attitudes and beliefs about affirmative action: effects of target and of respondent sex and ethnicity

Abstract: Undergraduates (N = 349) at a multicultural metropolitan university were surveyed to assess (a) beliefs and evaluations of potential components of affirmative action plans (AAPs), (b) correlations between attitudes toward affirmative action and such beliefs and evaluations, (c) differences in reactions as a function of the AAP target (minorities, women, or people with disabilities), and (d) gender and ethnic differences in the results of a, b, and c. Many beliefs about affirmative action were incorrect. Recruitment, training, and attention to applicant qualifications were favored, whereas discrimination, quotas, and preferential treatment were opposed. Opposition to potential AAP components was directly related to the weight given to demographic status

Job Demands and Worker Health: Three-Dimensional Reexamination of the Relationship Between Person-Environment Fit and Strain

Abstract: The most influential study of the person-environment (P-E) fit approach to stress was conducted by J. R. P. French, R. D. Caplan, and R. V. Harrison (1982). Unfortunately, this study operationalized fit using various transformations of difference scores, thereby introducing numerous substantive and methodological problems. In the present study, the authors reanalyze data from French et al., using a procedure described by J. R. Edwards (in press) that avoids problems with difference scores and captures the underlying three-dimensional relationship between E, P, and strain. Results resolve ambiguities in the French et al. findings and identify relationships between E, P, and strain that, although consistent with P-E fit theory, cannot be adequately represented by fit measures such as those used by French et al. Implications for P-E fit research are discussed.

Job Postings and the Decision to Interview: A Verbal Protocol Analysis

Abstract: The authors investigated the process of deciding whether or not to apply for jobs, using the verbal protocol analysis (VPA) technique. Verbal reports provided by participants as they evaluated job postings and decided whether or not to interview for jobs were analyzed to assess what information was heeded, the impact of incomplete or unusual information, and the role of inferences regarding job characteristics and probability of hire. Results indicated that location and compensation received the most attention and that participants also responded to the amount of information provided. In addition, participants made inferences about unobserved characteristics and probability of hire, although the latter played little role in the decision to interview

Utility of predicting group membership and the role of spatial visualization in becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist.

Abstract: This article has two themes: First, we explicate how the prediction of group membership can augment test validation designs restricted to prediction of individual differences in criterion performance. Second, we illustrate the utility of this methodology by documenting the importance of spatial visualization for becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist. This involved various longitudinal analyses on a sample of 400,000 high school students tracked after 11 years following their high school graduation. The predictive validities of Spatial-Math and Verbal-Math ability composites were established by successfully differentiating a variety of educational and occupational groups. One implication of our findings is that physical science and engineering disciplines appear to be losing many talented persons by restricting assessment to conventional mathematical and verbal abilities, such as those of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE).

Nature and Consequences of Halo Error : A Critical Analysis

Abstract: The definition of halo error that dominated researchers' thinking for most of this century implied that (a) halo error was common; (b) it was a rater error, with true and illusory components; (c) it led to inflated correlations among rating dimensions and was due to the influence of a general evaluation on specific judgments; and (d) it had negative consequences and should be avoided or removed. We review research showing that all of the major elements of this conception of halo are either wrong or problematic. Because of unresolved confounds of true and illusory halo and the often unclear consequences of halo errors, we suggest a moratorium on the use of halo indices as dependent measures in applied research. We suggest specific directions for future research on halo that take into account the context in which judgments are formed and ratings are obtained and that more clearly distinguish between actual halo errors and the apparent halo effect. When an individual is rated on multiple performance dimensions or attributes, the rater's overall impression or evaluation is thought to strongly influence ratings of specific attributes (Cooper, 1981 b), a phenomenon that is referred to as halo error (Thorndike, 1920). Discussions of halo error are most frequently encountered in the context of evaluative judgment (e.g., in interviews and performance appraisals), but similar phenomena have been noted in research on illusory correlation (Chapman & Chapman, 1969), implicit personality theory (Lay & Jackson, 1969), and interpersonal judgments (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).