Showing papers in "Journal of Child Language in 1986"

Feedback to first language learners: the role of repetitions and clarification questions.

Abstract: The conclusion that information regarding the grammatically of children's speech is unavailable in parental input has recently been challenged (Moerk 1983 a, b, Hirsh-Pasek, Treiman & Schneiderman 1984). The present study expanded on this research by broadening the definition of ‘negative feedback’ and by describing individual styles of mother–child dialogues. The purpose was to investigate whether mothers of four 2-year-old children responded differentially to their children's well-formed or ill-formed utterances with explicit and implicit feedback. The middle-class, English-speaking, mother–child dyads were recorded in a naturalistic context at home during play and eating activities. Explicit and implicit feedback were different in terms of the proportion of responses available to the child and their relation to well-formed and ill-formed utterances. The style of response was similar for most analyses across the four mothers.

The infant's role in mother–infant communications.

Abstract: Mothers talked to their infants via a video system designed so that each partner saw a full-face, life-size image of the other on a screen before them, perfect eye-to-eye contact being possible. They were presented either with live, real-time video sequences of their infants, where communication was therefore potentially mutually responsive, or else with the same sequence replayed some minutes later. The mother's babytalk differed consistently between live and replay sequences. Since the infants' acts were identical in form in the two conditions, the only difference being the infant's potential responsiveness to the mother, these results are evidence for the infant's active role in contributing to the nature of interactions with adults.

'I beg your pardon?': the preverbal negotiation of failed messages.

Abstract: This longitudinal study of how preverbal infants communicate with their mothers utilized the situation in which the infant was seated in a highchair at lunchtime. This situation predisposed infants to use communication as a means, since they were often unable to achieve their goals without assistance. It was found that infants' communicative attempts were often unsuccessful; the present study focussed on how infants and mothers worked to establish the infants' intents after communication failures. In the preverbal negotiation of failed messages infants direct communicative behaviours to their mothers which their mothers fail to comprehend immediately, NEGOTIATIONS occur when mothers help infants make their intents clear. Negotiation episodes have four components: the infant's initial signal, the mother's comprehension failure, infant repairs and episode outcome. Changes in these components provide much information about how infants' communicative skills evolve during the transition to a linguistically based communication system. Negotiation episodes are contrasted with episodes called IMMEDIATE SUCCESSES in which the mother readily comprehends the intent behind the infant's signal, and MISSED ATTEMPTS in which the mother fails to pick up on the infant's signal. Taken together these three types of communicative episode reveal a degree of persistence and creativity on the part of the preverbal infant that is surprising in the light of prior research. Such episodes further reveal that the course of preverbal communication is NOT smooth.

Television as a talking picture book: A prop for language-acquisition

Abstract: This study provides longitudinal observations of young children's behaviours while viewing television in their own homes, over a time when the children were actively involved in the process of language acquisition. Sixteen children were observed for a period ranging from 0; 6 to 0;8. At the beginning, their ages ranged from 0; 6.15 to 5.15; at the end, from 1; 2.15 to 3;0. The observations yielded documentation of an overwhelming and consistent occurrence of language-related behaviours among children and parents in the viewing situation. The categories of child and adult talk are reported, with description and examples of each category. The categories are compared with those reported for parent–child interactions outside the viewing experience, – in particular joint book-reading. A model of television as a talking picture book is proposed. It is argued that television has the potential to serve as a facilitator of children's language acquisition.

Quiché Mayan speech to children

Abstract: Details of the linguistic modifications in speech to children are provided for the Mayan language Quiche. Quiche input is evaluated with respect to 17 features listed in Ferguson (1978). Eight additional features are noted for Quiche speech to children: whispering, initial-syllable deletion, BT forms for verbs, a verbal suffix that appears exclusively in speech to children, a relatively fixed word order with relatively fewer overt noun phrases, more imperatives, and a special interpretive routine. Quiche parents have a special register for speaking to young children. However, Quiche speech to children has only five of the features that Ferguson cites: repetition, BT forms for qualities, compound verbs, diminutives, and special sounds. This suggests that the features of speech to children are not universal, but are determined by the conventions for interacting with children in each community. Functional explanations of such features will have to take this degree of cultural variation into consideration.

Young children's responses to neutral and specific contingent queries.

Abstract: This study examined young children's responses to adult contingent queries. Each of 22 children in Language Stages II–V conversed alone with their mother and alone with an adult experimenter. The adults queried the child's multi-word utterances with either a neutral or a specific query. Children at all stages responded differently to the two types of query. In response to the neutral query children tended to repeat their entire utterance, whereas in response to the specific query they most often replied with only the asked-for information. Some children found it easier to differentiate the query types when their mother was the listener. These findings suggest that very young children can comprehend the linguistic structure of specific queries and that they can make pragmatically appropriate responses.

Object permanence and relational words: a lexical training study

Abstract: Observational/correlational research has established that children in stage 5 object permanence development use words that refer to the visible movement of objects, while it is not until stage 6 that they use words referring to the invisible movement of objects (e.g. gone). It is not clear, however, whether the cognitive competence evidenced by performance in the object permanence task is a prerequisite for these linguistic productions or whether they both emerge simultaneously from some underlying representation. The current study used a lexical training paradigm to teach object words, visible movement words, and invisible movement words to children at stage 5 and stage 6 object permanence development. Stage 6 children learned all three types of words equally well. Stage 5 children learned object and visible movement words, especially in comprehension, but did not learn the invisible movement word. These results indicate that the cognitive structures underlying performance in the object permanence task are genuine prerequisites for learning these types of words.

The acquisition of colour terms.

Abstract: The acquisition of colour terms in pre-school-aged children was investigated in two studies. The first study explored the role of conceptual factors in 2-, 3- and 4-year-old children's performance on two tasks. Comprehension and production of basic colour words were tested using stimuli that varied in focality. The results confirmed earlier research demonstrating the important and early influence of focality on children's colour concepts and developing colour lexicon. However, only moderate support was obtained for the order-of-acquisition hypothesis proposed by Berlin & Kay (1969). Quite large discrepancies between comprehension and production were found in this study, with no clear relationship between these two performances. In the second study the role of maternal input on children's learning of colour words was investigated, using the spontaneous speech transcripts from Adam, Eve and Sarah. Significant correlations between mothers' and children's uses of specific colour words were found across all three subjects. The findings from both studies confirm that both conceptual and environmental factors are important in shaping the child's developing colour concepts and colour lexicon, particularly for mapping out the boundaries of the basic colour spaces, which are culturally, rather than innately, determined.

The acquisition of the voicing contrast in Thai: a study of voice onset time in word-initial stop consonants.

Abstract: This paper reports on a cross-sectional acoustical investigation of the development of the voicing contrast in Thai word-initial stops. Voice onset time (VOT) productions associated with three bilabial stops (/b p ph/), three alveolar stops (/d t th/), and two velar stops (/k kh/) were measured in seven 3-year-old children, seven 5-year-old children, seven 7-year-old children, and seven adults. Within each age group, differences in mean VOT between homorganic stop consonants indicated that 3-year-olds have acquired all voicing contrasts except /b/ vs. /p/ and /d/ vs. /t/. By age five, children have acquired all voicing contrasts. However, as measured by differences in mean VOT across age groups, 5-year-olds still do not produce /b/ or/d/ in an adult-like manner. Issues concerning the order of acquisition and nature of development of stop consonants are discussed.

Phonological constraints on the emergence of two-word utterances *

Abstract: Considerable interest has been generated concerning linguistic and cognitive factors influencing the onset of early combinatorial speech. The present diary study provides evidence that, for some children, the transition between the single-word and two-word stages may be governed by phonological constraints. The presence of a phonological selection strategy and consonant harmony rule in one child's developing phonological system is described. Evidence is presented suggesting that this consonant harmony constraint operated across morpheme boundaries. This had the effect not only of delaying the onset of two-word utterances, but also of influencing the selection of words that could occur in word combinations. The implications of these findings for explaining individual variation in the transition from single-word to combinatorial speech are discussed.

Context effects on lexical specificity in maternal and child discourse.

Abstract: Mother–child (two-year-old) object labelling was studied in three natural discourse settings: (1) routine, caretaking; (2) free play; and (3) novel. Object labelling was found to be considerably more varied in these natural discourse settings than in experimental situations. While basic level tokens predominated in the free play context, they were significantly less prevalent in the routine and novel contexts. Additionally, subordinate level term usage was more common in the routine and novel contexts. The relation between mother and child labelling was also investigated and results indicated that context may be more important in determining level of labels than maternal modelling. Analyses of the discourse uses of non-basic level terms revealed that mothers were organizing the social-interactive context in ways that may facilitate child category formation.

The acquisition of the present perfect: explaining differences in the speech of Scottish and American children.

Abstract: This study assesses the role of frequency of input in the acquisition of the present perfect by Scottish and American children. Two questions were addressed: (1) Do adults speaking Scottish English use the present perfect more frequently in speech to children than those speaking American English? (2) If there is a difference in the frequency of input, how does this affect the course of development of this structure in the language of Scottish vs. American children? Cross-sectional data were collected from 12 Scottish and 12 American children aged 3; 0 to 6; 4 and from adults interacting with them in naturalistic settings. The data led to the conclusions that (1) Scottish adults use the present perfect construction in their speech to children much more frequently than American adults do; (2) Scottish children use the present perfect construction in their speech long before their American counterparts; and (3) frequency of input does play a major role in the timing and order of acquisition of the present perfect. However, its role appears to be an interactive one, in which it conspires with factors such as semantic, syntactic, and cognitive simplicity to make some forms easier to learn than others.

Belief and Quantity: Three-Year Olds' Adaptation to Listener's Knowledge.

Abstract: Two groups of 3-year-old children (3:0–3;6 and 3;6–4;0) observed two actions of a toy. In one condition an older partner was absent while the subject watched both of the toy actions (fully ignorant partner), whereas in the other condition the partner witnessed one of the two actions together with the subject (partially ignorant partner). When asked about the toy's actions by their partially ignorant partner both age groups adjusted their answers to their partner's ignorance and mentioned only that action which was new to their partner. However, in their answers to their fully ignorant partner the younger children tended to provide insufficient information by mentioning only one instead of both actions.

The use of the definite and indefinite articles by Italian preschool children

Abstract: In deciding whether to use a definite or indefinite referring expression a speaker must apply a pragmatic rule: the definite article is usually appropriate if the listener is already familiar with the referent, and the indefinite article if not. Several studies have investigated at what age this rule is mastered by children. The most satisfactory procedure so far adopted is a task in which the subject must narrate a pictorially-presented story to another child who cannot see the pictures. It has been found that 5-year-old children already follow the correct rule quite well, except that they make ‘egocentric errors’ (i.e. using the definite article when first mentioning a referent) in around 15–35% of instances. Experiment 1 here confirms that this pattern of results is also obtained using Italian children. A problem with this experimental design is then raised: it does not exclude the possibility that subjects might produce the correct response distribution by following a rule based on the SPEAKER'S familiarity with the referent, not the listener's. To check this possibility, a modified design was used (Experiment 2) in which the subject had to narrate the story to two listeners, one after the other. Significantly more egocentric errors were made on the second narration of the story than on the first narration.

Language-specific and language-general in developing syntax.

Abstract: The distribution of a number of syntactic structures in the speech output of 102 Israeli preschoolers was examined. Findings on the proportion of grammatically analysable clauses, the patterning of word order in Hebrew child language, and the emergence of syntactic connectedness through coordination and subordination of clauses are reported. Our analysis reveals that while in some areas there are clearly age-related differences among preschool children, other types of syntactic patternings exhibit a stable behaviour. We refer to the importance of integrating findings for a wide variety of seemingly unrelated syntactic constructions across different discourse modes. We also claim that complex interactions between structural, semantic and pragmatic factors underlie the child's acquisition of syntax.

Learning discourse topic management in the preschool years

Abstract: The ability of children aged 0;1 to 2;6 to initiate and maintain topics of conversation is explored using videotaped data of mother–child interaction collected at home. An analysis of both verbal and non-verbal behaviours suggests that initially children attract attention exclusively to themselves as topics of conversation. The emergence of manipulative skills from 0; 5 and the development of deictic gestures from around the end of the first year facilitate the initiation of topics concerned with items in the physical environment. Finally, with the development of language, reference to intangibles becomes possible. In maintaining topics, children are initially capable of extended sequences only within the context of routines, but by 2;6 are able to maintain coherent topics independently. The implications of the analysis presented for understanding the role of prelinguistic communication in language development are discussed against the background of a modular framework.

Some possible causes of children's early word overextensions

Abstract: One child's lexical development was followed from 1; 1 to 1; 7 to look for possible causes of early word overextensions. Lexical acquisition was observed for comprehension and production through the use of a parental diary and systematic language sampling. In addition, 16 nonsense words were taught in 10 experimental sessions over a two-month period to control for phonological effects. The results isolated six distinct factors behind early word overextensions. It is concluded that overextensions should not constitute the primary data for the construction of theories of semantic acquisition.

The effect of feedback on young children's inappropriate word usage

Abstract: This study compared the effects of three types of adult feedback (acceptance, correction with joint labelling, and correction with explanation) on young children's inappropriate word usage. Four children were visited in their homes twice a week, from the time they were between 1;1 and 1;3 until they were approximately 1;7. Differential feedback was applied by the experimenter whenever the children extended a term to referents that were inappropriate, but similar to appropriate ones. Comprehension and production probes were administered prior to, during, and following the feedback trials to assess changes in word usage over time. Results indicated that the three types of feedback varied in their relative effectiveness in facilitating a positive change in word usage. Correction with explanation was more effective than correction with joint labelling, which in turn was more effective than simple acceptance.

Semantic and Pragmatic Uses of 'But.'.

Abstract: All uses of the connective but by narrating children 3; 6 to 9; 6 were classified as having primarily semantic function, pragmatic function, or as errors. The youngest children make the majority of errors, mistakenly using but when causal or precausal relationships exist. All children most commonly use but to signal semantic relationships such as semantic opposition or violation of expectation, although the oldest children use but proportionately more to encode more complex contrasts. However, children at all ages also use but for primarily pragmatic functions, to interrupt the flow of their narrative in order to insert relevant comments, monitor the listener's attention, or change topic. If discourse can be conceptualized as having multiple levels, but signals a change in level within a speaker's turn.

Basic level categorization in seven- and nine-month-old infants.

Abstract: The current reliance on linguistic data for inferences about the concept–word relationship has led to serious questions being raised regarding the existence and facilitative role of prelinguistic categories in early word learning. In three experiments a multiple habituation paradigm was used to examine the ability of 7- and 9-month-old prelinguistic infants to form a natural, basic-level object category. In Experiment 1, 9-month-old infants appeared to form a category of bird, but only when habituated to prototypical exemplars as opposed to poor exemplars. Discriminability between prototypical habituation exemplars and test stimuli was demonstrated in Experiment 2. In Experiment 3, 7-month-olds did not form a category of bird when habituated to prototypes. These findings constitute independent evidence for the existence of a linguistically relevant nonlinguistic category prior to the onset of word comprehension. Moreover, formation of prelinguistic categories appears to be facilitated by exposure to prototypes. Such goodness-of-exemplar effects suggest a structural similarity between infants' prelinguistic categories and early semantic categories. Finally, nonlinguistic categorization of natural basic-level objects, as represented in line drawings, appears to emerge between 0;7 and 0;9.

Young children pronounce object words more accurately than action words.

Abstract: Young children's productions of novel words serving as names of objects and actions were compared. Although the object and action names were matched according to consonant and syllable structure, accurate production of newly emerging consonants was greater for the object words for each of the measures used: spontaneous production and unsolicited imitation during the word exposure sessions, and responses to production probes administered during and following the exposure sessions. These findings are attributed to the fact that action words have greater semantic complexity than object words, and that the increased processing requirements involved in referring to actions reduce the capacity to use newly developing sounds in these words.

Topic and communicative intent in mother–child discourse

Abstract: This study examined topic discourse skills in 30 pre-operational level children interacting with their mothers in a free play situation. For each interaction, topic initiations/shadings were analysed for here-and-now, fantasy, and displacement topics. All turns (initiations, shadings and maintenance) involving these topic categories were also coded for communicative intent. Results indicated that children initiated/shaded more fantasy topics than their mothers, who initiated/shaded more displacement topics. Topic maintenance was significantly greater for fantasy and here-and-now topics than for displacement. Mothers initiated/shaded and maintained topics primarily by requests for all three topic categories. Children used more informatives to initiate/shade these topics, and maintained fantasy and displacement topics primarily by responses to mothers' questions. The results suggested a complex picture of children's management of discourse as it relates to topic and mothers' continuing role in facilitating their children's discourse skills.

Cohesion and predication in child narrative.

Abstract: This study traces the development of predicate use for genre and cohesion in the narratives of children aged 2 to 5, examining predicate structures and types and their linkages via three types of parallelism and by means of explicit connectives. After age 2, bivalent (transitive) active verbs were dominant; semantically, verbs of the DO and then GO categories dominated until age 5, when BE verbs ranked second. The dominant type of parallelism was reiteration of grammatical structure alone; reiteration of both predicate structure and lexical content decreased with age. Concerning connectives, 2-year-olds used the smallest number – primarily ‘and’ – while 5-year-olds used the greatest variety. However, by age 5, children used parallelism as the second most common connective device after ‘and’.

Acquisition and generalization of novel object concepts by young language learners.

Abstract: Twenty-month-old children learned to recognize nonsense labels for five novel object concepts and were tested on generalization to variants of these concepts. Children were presented with either one or three examples of each object type during learning sessions. Results showed that receptive learning of names for object concepts was significantly related to a number of possible manipulations specific to each object type and to labelling by children. Children's generalization choices were consistent with adults' ranking of similarity of variants to concept prototypes. Children who learned less well were more likely to generalize to new instances of an object concept and to a greater number of variants if they had been exposed to three rather than one example during training sessions. Results also support the hypothesis that differentiation of objects in interaction is important to the formation of an object concept at this age.

The early acquisition of spatial adjectives: a cross-linguistic study

Abstract: In two experiments, the early acquisition of spatial adjectives is examined. In Experiment 1, 3- to 4-year-old and 4- to 5-year-old English children were tested for their comprehension of big, tall and long. In general, comprehension of all three adjectives improved with age, but in confirmation of Maratsos (1973) there was a sharp increase with age in one particular type of error: when asked to select the bigger of two objects, older children frequently chose the taller but smaller member of the pair. Further analysis showed that those older children who understood the word tall were especially likely to make this error. In Experiment 2, Dutch children of the same age were tested for their comprehension of groot (meaning ‘big’) and lang (meaning both ‘tall’ and ‘long’). Dutch children were also prone to choose the taller of two objects when asked to point to the bigger one, although Dutch does not possess a spatial adjective such as tall that refers exclusively to the vertical dimension. The implications of the findings for the acquisition of spatial adjectives, and for theories of semantic development are discussed.

Children's judgements of transitivity errors*

Abstract: Diary studies of English, Hebrew and Portuguese have led to debate on whether there is directionality in children's transitivity errors – that is, whether children are as likely to coin intransitives from transitives (*Bert knocked down) as they are transitives from intransitives (*I falled my cup). The judgements made by 3- and 4-year-olds showed a strong bias in favour of innovative transitives in English. It is argued that this bias results from children's preference for prototypical, highly transitive descriptions of events.

Twin talk: manifestations of twin status in the speech of toddlers.

Abstract: With the expectation that an examination of language between toddler twins in their home environment would reveal characteristics unique to the subjects' twin status, 31 hours of crib-talk between identical twin girls and diary records of their speech were examined. It was found that the subjects developed conventional syntax and vocabulary, but adapted them in ways which appropriately expressed their twin status. Three salient examplesinclude their use of a double name for themselves as a team, their use of singular verbs in reference to themselves together, and their use of the singular pronoun me in pronominal reference to themselves as a team.