Showing papers in "Journal of Communication in 2004"

The Neglect of Power in Recent Framing Research

Abstract: This article provides a critique of recent developments in research examining media frames and their influence. We contend that a number of trends in framing research have neglected the relationship between media frames and broader issues of political and social power. This neglect is a product of a number of factors, including conceptual problems in the definition of frames, the inattention to frames sponsorship, the failure to examine framing contests within wider political and social contexts, and the reduction of framing to a form of media effects. We conclude that framing research needs to be linked to the political and social questions regarding power central to the media hegemony thesis, and illustrate this focus by exploring how framing research can contribute to an understanding of the interaction between social movements and the news media. Examinations of the production, character, and influence of news stories represent an enduring focus of media scholarship. A variety of approaches, including gatekeeping, agenda setting, organizational studies of news work, and analyses of news bias, have explored either the gathering of news or journalism’s political role. In recent decades, a rapidly expanding research literature on news frames has sought to provide a comprehensive perspective on the production, reception, and influence of news texts. This article provides a critique of recent developments in research examining media frames and their influence. We contend that a number of trends in framing research have neglected the relationship between media frames and broader issues of political and social power. This neglect is a product of conceptual problems in the definition of frames, the inattention to frame sponsorship, the failure to examine framing contests within wider political and social contexts, and the reduction of framing to a form of media effects. In keeping with early sociological research on framing (Gitlin, 1980; Tuchman, 1978), we suggest that framing processes need to be examined within the contexts of the distribution of political and social power. We, therefore, call for the integration of framing research with the

Public relations: State of the field

Abstract: Public relations is both a professional practice and a subfield of communication with its own research and theory base. Public relations is relatively young as an academic field, however, having developed identifiable theory in only about the last 50 years. The field of public relations is developing into a theoretically based area of applied communication that has the potential to inform several areas of communication/mass communication and to offer theoretic and conceptual tools useful in health, risk, and political communication, among others. Because many readers are unfamiliar with public relations theory and research, this article first reviews and summarizes theory-related scholarship in public relations, then categorizes and explains the theoretic trends in the field. The article concludes by demonstrating how one of public relations' theoretic/conceptual tools, issues management, can apply across all areas of applied communication.

Explicating Media Salience: A Factor Analysis of New York Times Issue Coverage During the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election

Abstract: Media salience—the key independent variable in agenda-setting research—has traditionally been explicated as a singular construct. Nevertheless, scholars have defined and measured it using a number of different conceptualizations and empirical indicators. To address this limitation in research, this study introduced a conceptual model of media salience, suggesting it is a multidimensional construct consisting of 3 core elements: attention, prominence, and valence. Furthermore, the model was tested through an exploratory factor analysis of The New York Times news coverage of 8 major political issues during the 2000 presidential election as a case study. The data revealed that 2 dimensions of media salience emerge: visibility and valence. Based on the factor analysis, 2 indices are created to measure the construct, which are intended for use in future investigations.

The Processes of Adopting Multimedia and Interactivity in Three Online Newsrooms

Abstract: This article examines the material culture of newsroom practices by focusing on the dynamics of the processes through which news workers adopt new technologies. More specifically, it looks at some key factors that shape the adoption of multimedia and interactive technologies in online newspapers. Through ethnographic case studies of innovations in 3 online newsrooms, I show that variations in organizational structures, work practices, and representations of the users are related to different ways in which members of the newsroom appropriate these technologies. I draw from this analysis to reflect on issues related to the technological dimension of editorial work and the dynamics of media convergence.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Distance Learning: A Comparison Using Meta-Analysis

Abstract: This article uses meta-analysis to summarize the quantitative literature comparing the performance of students in distance education versus traditional classes. The average effect (average r = .048, k = 39, N = 71,731) demonstrates that distance education course students slightly outperformed traditional students on exams and course grades. The average effect was heterogeneous, and the examination of several moderating features (presence or absence of simultaneous interaction, type of channel used in distance education, and course substance) failed to produce a homogeneous solution. The results demonstrate, however, no clear decline in educational effectiveness when using distance education technology. The profound impact that technological innovations are having in all facets of education focuses attention on assessing relationships between changing modes and practices of instruction and their outcomes. The emergence of new technologies does not change the goals of education. The new technologies change the process of communication within an educational setting to accomplish those goals. Research by communication scholars is needed to examine how changes in means of communicating content impacts the goals of those engaged in a communication activity. Understanding potential impacts of technologically driven differences between traditional classrooms and distance learning contexts is clearly appropriate (Althaus, 1997; Boettcher, 1996; Greene & Meek, 1998; McHenry & Bozik, 1995; Verduin &

Mapping Boundaries of the Hostile Media Effect

Abstract: The hostile media perception, the tendency for partisans to judge mass media coverage as unfavorable to their own point of view, has been vividly demonstrated but not well explained. This contrast bias is intriguing because it appears to contradict a robust literature on assimilation biases—the tendency to find information more supportive, rather than more opposed, to one’s own position. We set out to explore a theoretical basis for the hostile media perception that would reconcile it with assimilation biases. To do so, we exposed partisans from opposing camps on the genetically modified foods issue to identical information presented in either a mass media or a student essay context. Consistent with the hypotheses, partisans saw the information as disagreeably biased in a news story format. In student-essay format, however, the hostile media perception disappeared, and there was some evidence of biased assimilation. In addition, content evaluations based on perceived influence on oneself vs. influence on a broader audience suggested that the hostile media perception may be explained by perceived reach of the information source. To newspaper editors it is a common, and not unwelcome, criticism. Two readers from opposing partisan groups write letters to the editor, each complaining that news coverage is biased in favor of the other side. Editors welcome such responses (and usually print them side by side) for together they suggest it is readers, not news stories, who are biased. Psychologists refer to this phenomenon— when an individual perceives information to be more disagreeable with his or her own point of view—as a contrast effect. This particular instance of the contrast effect, a familiar experience for editors and reporters, has been called the hostile media perception. The hostile media perception was first described and documented more than 15 years ago (Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985). Over the next decade, two other experimental studies (Giner-Sorolla & Chaiken, 1994; Perloff, 1989) replicated the effect using the same controversial issue—conflict in the Middle East. Interest in

Organizational Communication: Challenges for the New Century

Abstract: Organizational communication covers an eclectic mix of approaches, theories, and methodologies, developed within organizational settings or applied from other areas. The authors start their assessment of recent literature with 6 challenges for the field that have been delineated in previous reviews: (a) to innovate in theory and methodology, (b) to acknowledge the role of ethics, (c) to move from micro- to macrolevel issues, (d) to examine new organizational structures and technologies, (e) to understand the communication of organizational change, and (f) to explore diversity and intergroup aspects of communication. All 6 challenges implicate the importance of considering the intergroup level of analysis as well as the interpersonal and organizational levels, to undertake multilevel research in context, and to consider the role and place of voice in organizations. Finally, researchers must make their research ethical and consequential.

Managing the Public Sphere: Journalistic Construction of the Great Globalization Debate

Abstract: There is little consensus on what constitutes open, deliberative media discourse. We offer a simple, measurable, and comparative model based on 3 aspects of source and issue construction in news accounts: access, recognition, and responsiveness. The model is applied to coverage of 2001-2003 World Economic Forum (WEF) meetings and protests against the organization's role in global economic policies. Both demonstrators and WEF participants were granted news access, but WEF actors were recognized more formally and given greater input in news content, including ownership claims to many activist issue positions. Journalistic deference to the WEF communication agenda limited mutual responsiveness. The journalistic process systematically managed the debate about globalization on terms that favored elites over citizen-activists.

The Impact of Political Advertising on Knowledge, Internet Information Seeking, and Candidate Preference

Abstract: Previous research has suggested that exposure to political advertising is generally informative and may even reduce information gaps between the most and least aware in society, but does not produce large shifts in candidate preference. Drawing on extant models of opinion change, we predicted that the informational benefits of political ads would vary by level of awareness, such that the most aware would experience the largest gains, especially when they are asked to make inferences about issues not explicitly discussed in the ad. Further, we predicted that the most aware would use information in advertisements as a substitute for other kinds of information seeking, while the least aware would be relatively unmotivated to seek out new information, regardless of exposure. Finally, the least aware would be more susceptible to persuasion via ads than the most aware would be. Experimental evidence confirmed these predictions. Though the 50th anniversary of the first use of televised political advertisements in American campaigns is upon us, debates about the substantive impact and proper role of this unique form of political communication still rage. Recent meta-analyses have identified over 50 scholarly studies involving the impact of advertising on participation (Allen & Burrell, 2002; Lau, Sigelman, Heldman, & Babbit, 1999). Advertising has grown from a tool used exclusively by presidential candidates to an essential element of campaign communication at all levels of government. Consequently, the proportion of campaign-related expenditures by candidates and interest groups dedicated to this form of political communication has risen

The Impact of Completeness and Web Use Motivation on the Credibility of e-Health Information

Abstract: Recent articles on the quality of health information on the Internet reveal 2 critical criteria: completeness and credibility. This article investigates the effect of Web use motivation on the relationship between completeness and consumer perceptions of credibility. Based on a 2 × 3 experiment conducted with 246 respondents, the article demonstrates that the extent of completeness of health information on the Internet impacts consumer assessment of source and website credibility. In contrast to the extant research on the orthogonality of content and source characteristics, this research demonstrates their interaction.

Modernization and Tradition in an Age of Globalization: Cultural Values in Chinese Television Commercials

Abstract: The authors analyzed commercials (N = 496) shown on 3 Chinese TV stations in the summer of 2000 to uncover the dominant value themes and identified 13 value themes as applicable in the current sample. This study found that the most dominant value themes in the Chinese commercials were product quality/effectiveness, family, modernity, beauty/youth, and pleasure indicating the prevalence of utilitarian values and the coexistence of both traditional and modern values in the world of Chinese advertising. Value themes identified in this study are compared with previous conceptualizations and discussed in the context of globalization and Chinese cultural change.

Must-See TV or ESPN: Entertainment and Sports Media Exposure and Body-Image Distortion in College Women

Abstract: Many studies offer clear evidence that exposure to TDP (thinness depicting and promoting) media leads to distorted body-image perceptions in school-age females and college women. This study investigated women's exposure to two types of media—entertainment and sports media—and looked for possible associations with body-image distortion and eating disorders. College women were surveyed in the fall of 2001 and asked to report exposure to 40 programs airing on prime-time networks and report exposure to specific men's and women's sports. Exposure to “thin-ideal” television was a significant predictor of four dimensions of disordered eating for women of all races. However, women's exposure to sports media was not a significant predictor of lower degrees of disordered eating.

Political Correlates of Local News Media Use

Abstract: Despite the crucial role that local news media play in studies of community and community integration, research on local media effects often is overshadowed by a concern with the effects of national media (Friedland & McLeod, 1999). This study examines the political correlates of attention to local news, focusing on evaluations of journalists and news media, political knowledge, and political participation. Analyses of survey data collected from a probability sample in Seattle, WA (N = 456) indicate nuanced relationships between attention to local news and evaluations of journalists and news media. Attention to news on television and in newspapers enhanced perceptions of knowledge, but it was only attention to newspaper local news that promoted political participation. Of particular note is the fact that both positive and negative evaluations led to participation, suggesting that unfavorable views of the press can invigorate democracy.

Emphasizing “Communication” in Health Communication

Abstract: the art and technique of informing, influencing, and motivating individual, institutional, and public audiences about important health issues. The scope of health communication includes disease prevention, health promotion, health care policy, and the business of health care as well as enhancement of the quality of life and health of individuals within the community. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000)

Factual and evaluative approaches to modifying children's responses to violent television

Abstract: An experiment with 5-7- and 10-12-year-old children compared 2 approaches to mediating children's violent television viewing. Factual mediation provided children with facts about a violent program's production techniques. Evaluative mediation provided negative evaluations of the program's characters. The findings revealed that evaluative mediation was the most effective strategy for promoting positive outcomes, particularly for younger children. Factual mediation had either no effect or increased some children's vulnerability to media violence. The implications of these findings for developing mediation strategies and media literacy programs are discussed.

Increases in Calls to the CDC National STD and AIDS Hotline Following AIDS‐Related Episodes in a Soap Opera

Abstract: In the United States, minority women are at risk of HIV infection and comprise a disproportionate share of daytime soap opera viewers In August 2001, a soap opera subplot delivered HIV prevention messages to viewers and displayed the National STD and AIDS Hotline's toll-free number (800-342-243 7) after 2 episodes On both days, the number of attempted calls to the Hotline in the 1-hour time slots during and just after the 30-minute broadcasts rose dramatically These increases in information-seeking behavior are consistent with predictions based on social cognitive theory, the health belief model, and various models of information processing The increases also provide support for the Education-Entertainment approach and underscore the importance of a productive partnership between public health and the entertainment industry

Chronic Accessibility and Individual Cognitions: Examining the Effects of Message Frames in Political Advertisements

Abstract: This study examines the effects of media framing on voter cognitions and how such effects can be moderated by voters' chronically accessible schemas. Participants in this study were exposed to political ads that have been systematically framed as either issue oriented or character oriented. Results indicated that, although message frames could indeed prime audiences and generate related mental activations in political evaluations, these effects varied among those with different political schemas. When message frames were consistent with individual schemas, audiences were more likely to be affected than when message frames were inconsistent. They suggest that identifying individual-level factors in the study of framing effects might be an important link in understanding the dynamic relationship between media frames and audience responses.

No Shades of Gray: The Binary Discourse of George W. Bush and an Echoing Press

Abstract: Binary communications represent the world as a place of polar opposites. Such conceptions of reality, although not uncommon in Western thought, take on a heightened importance when political leaders employ them in a concerted, strategic discourse in a mass media environment. With this in mind, this research offers a conception of binary discourse and uses this as a foundation to examine (a) the use of binaries by U.S. President George W. Bush in 15 national addresses, from his inauguration in January 2001 to commencement of the Iraq War in March 2003, and (b) the responses of editorials in 20 leading U.S. newspapers to the president's communications.

Mapping Visual Studies in Communication

Abstract: This essay documents the main currents of visual studies in communication. After a brief history of the emergence of the field, we review the record of published research in books and journals during the past 5 years, identifying major strains of theory, key issues, and topical categories. We then apply the strains of thought to classify papers presented at the ICA conferences, noting patterns and shifts across and within ICA divisions and interest groups. Based on these patterns, as well as on informal input from colleagues, we map the discipline formation of visual studies and identify trends in institutional development. We conclude by exploring future directions for the field now that the visual interest group has grown to become the Visual Studies Division of ICA.

Preparations for Y2K: Revisiting the Behavioral Component of the Third‐Person Effect

Abstract: Although the behavioral component was an integral part of the original formulation of the third-person effect hypothesis, little research has examined the impact of biased media effect perceptions on behaviors that assume others have already been affected The present study examines how third-person perceptions (the belief that other people are particularly vulnerable to media messages) contributed to intentions to prepare for problems stemming from Y2K, also known as the “millennium bug” Analyses using data from 2 regional probability samples taken in late 1999 show that perceptions about the potential effects of news messages influenced public anxiety about the Y2K situation and beliefs that other people would overprepare for the new year These 2 variables, in turn, predicted intentions to stockpile supplies of food, water, gasoline, and cash The article discusses the implications of these findings for understanding the relationship between perceptions of media effects and an extended range of behaviors

Voices of the Marginalized on the Internet: Examples From a Website for Women of South Asia

Abstract: With increasing availability of the Internet, many marginal groups are producing a presence in cyberspace. The presence can be thought of as a phenomenon in which the Internet is providing a unique forum for the dispossessed to find a voice in the public sphere. Using the theories of voice, the presence in cyberspace opens up questions of trust, authenticity, and power with respect to individual and institutional “speakers.” This article explores the textual and discursive strategies used by a South Asian women's Web portal to understand the consequences of gaining a voice in cyberspace.

The Face of Crime: Viewers' Memory of Race‐Related Facial Features of Individuals Pictured in the News

Abstract: This study examined news readers’ memories of race-related facial features of an individual pictured in the news. Participants were presented with a series of news stories, including one of four different versions of the news story of interest: nonstereotyped, stereotyped/noncrime, nonviolent crime, violent crime. Each of the four versions contained a photograph of an individual who was the focus of the story, with the same photograph appearing across news story conditions. Subsequently, participants reconstructed the photograph of the individual by selecting from a series of facial features (i.e., noses, mouths, skin tones) presented on a computer screen. Although selected features did not differ from the actual photograph in the nonstereotyped and stereotyped/noncrime conditions, selected facial features for the crime stories featured more Afrocentric than Eurocentric features, particularly for the story concerning violent crime. If asked to imagine a “prototypical” criminal, what characteristics would most people bring to mind? Perhaps they would picture characteristics reflecting actual arrest statistics, with images reflecting a larger proportion of males than females, for example. Undoubtedly, many characteristics would also reflect stereotypes of criminality and common depictions, including media portrayals of criminals. Given the considerable amount of research that reports that news stories associate criminality with African Americans, coupled with research reporting people’s greater fear of and assumed guilt of Blacks compared to Whites, it follows that many people would likely envision a Black rather than a White criminal (Bodenhausen, 1990; Chiricos, Hogan, & Gertz, 1997; Gordon, Michels, & Nelson, 1996; Hurwitz & Peffley, 1997; St. John & Heald-Moore, 1995).

Deriving lay models of uncertainty about genes' role in illness causation to guide communication about human genetics

Abstract: Advances in clinical genetics and biotechnology increase the ability to identify individual genetic makeup through genetic services and testing. As a result, genes have become the focus of an increasing number of health messages associated with medical interaction and public communication. This research explored public perceptions (N= 858) of the role of genes in health using problematic integration (PI) theory as a framework. A Genetic Relativism Instrument (GRI) associated with macroframeworks about illness causation was developed and used to cluster individuals into 4 groups associated with communicating about genes and health. Uncertainty about the role of personal behaviors, social environments, and religious faith on genes' impact for human health varied significantly among the four groups. In this age of increased use of genetic technologies, communication regarding human genetics in counseling and health promotion may contribute to better informed decision making if tailored to these varied belief systems.

Argument and Decision Making in Computer‐Mediated Groups

Abstract: Following Gouran (1994), the authors proposed four hypotheses that predict the probability of computer-mediated groups (CMGs) endorsing proposals based on (a) the number of reasons offered for them, (b) the number of members advancing these reasons, (c) the net number of positive reactions to the reasons advanced, and (d) the development of support for the reasons. Results from 11 groups that had long collaborated exclusively through computer-mediated means indicated that members in support of a proposal relative to those in opposition as well as the development of their arguments were significant predictors of decision outcomes. Moreover, the number of responses for/against a proposal and the difference in the positive and negative reactions to decision proposals were good independent predictors of decision outcomes.

Social Presence and Children: Praise, Intrinsic Motivation, and Learning With Computers

Abstract: The computers are social actors (CASA) paradigm asserts that human computer users interact socially with computers, and the paradigm has provided extensive evidence that this is the case for adults. This experiment examined whether or not children have similar reactions to computers by comparing children's predictable responses to praise from a teacher to their responses to praise from a computer. Eight- to 10-year-old participants (N = 42) received either praise or neutral feedback from a computer. Independent variables were the feedback (praise or neutral), and participants' age and gender. Dependent variables measured via a paper-and-pencil questionnaire were learning (recall and recognition memory), perceived ability, and intrinsic motivation. Results provide evidence that children do have social responses to computers and that such social responses can lead to increases in learning (recall and recognition) in young children

How Verbalizers and Visualizers Process the Newspaper Environment

Abstract: This article addresses the question of how people process news photographs and news stories as a function of their scores on 2 scales designed to measure 2 “cognitive styles” called visualizing and verbalizing. Although newspaper practitioners believe news photos enhance the newspaper reading process, research has not demonstrated a clearly positive impact. Education theory about visualizing and verbalizing suggests these 2 individual-specific indicators may explain why news photos sometimes help and sometimes hinder. The results show that high visualizing scores did not enhance recall of stories or photos or even enhance story interest. In contrast, high verbalizers found all stories more interesting and recalled both stories and photos better than low verbalizers. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive style theory and its role in how people process visual and verbal news information.

The Efficacy of Inoculation in Televised Political Debates

Abstract: This study was the first to examine the potential of inoculation in televised political debates. The experiment confirmed the efficacy of inoculation in conferring resistance to the influence of counterattitudinal attack messages launched during debates. Inoculated participants with a preference toward a candidate were more resistant than the control group to the opposing candidate's counterattitudinal attacks. The study also explored the potential of inoculation to strengthen receivers' normative attitudes, reducing potentially harmful effects of candidate attacks on participatory behaviors, but no significant differences were observed. This null finding implies that candidate attacks launched during debates are less likely to be perceived as unwarranted and may afford less normative utility in political debates.

The Role of the Global Telecommunications Network in Bridging Economic and Political Divides, 1989 to 1999

Abstract: This research explores the role of telecommunicative globalization in bridging world political and economic divides. Current approaches define globalization primarily in terms of increased density of network ties between nations, a perspective the present article extends into a more comprehensive framework. Exchange and balance theories are combined into a multitheoretical, multilevel model consisting of hypotheses regarding the mutuality, transitivity, and cyclicality of telephonic flows between nations that differed in economic and democratic attributes in 1989 and 1999. Statistical p* procedures demonstrate that tendencies toward mutuality and transitivity in the world telecommunications network have significantly increased between 1989 and 1999. These findings hold both for telecommunication flows among a full set of 110 nations of the world and for links between rich and poor and democratic and nondemocratic nations. The article concludes by examining implications of these results for network globalization theories.