Showing papers in "Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development in 2012"
TL;DR: It is suggested that a more holistic understanding of the drinking water landscape is necessary for municipal planning and sustainable drinking water provision.
Abstract: Population growth in West Africa has outpaced local efforts to expand potable water services, and private sector sale of packaged drinking water has filled an important gap in household water security. Consumption of drinking water packaged in plastic sachets has soared in West Africa over the last decade, but the long-term implications of these changing consumption patterns remain unclear and unstudied. This paper reviews recent shifts in drinking water, drawing upon data from the 2003 and 2008 Demographic and Health Surveys, and provides an overview of the history, economics, quality, and regulation of sachet water in Ghana’s Accra-Tema Metropolitan Area. Given the pros and cons of sachet water, we suggest that a more holistic understanding of the drinking water landscape is necessary for municipal planning and sustainable drinking water provision.
118 citations
TL;DR: The difficulties experienced by schoolgirls in Uganda in managing menstrual hygiene are explored and the extent to which low-cost sanitary pads are part of the solution is investigated.
Abstract: Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) is a largely overlooked issue in the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector. Every day, millions of menstruating girls and women in low-income countries struggle to find clean water for washing, private places for changing and adequate blood absorbing materials. This study aims to explore the difficulties experienced by schoolgirls in Uganda in managing menstrual hygiene and investigates the extent to which low-cost sanitary pads are part of the solution. Low-cost sanitary pads, either re-usable or disposable, are a timely, simple and innovative means of improving menstrual hygiene and of addressing a broader set of problems related to MHM in schools. Other factors highlighted are: pain relief, education, safe water provision, clean and private latrines, hygienic and secure bathing facilities, use of soap, sealed waste disposal points, private drying places, anal cleansing materials and effective facility operation and management strategies.
91 citations
TL;DR: The Sustainability Assessment Tool developed in this research serves as a diagnostic to inform decision-making, characterize specific needs of rural communities in the management of their water systems, and identify weaknesses in training regimes or support mechanisms.
Abstract: An alarmingly high percentage of drinking water systems in the developing world do not provide design service, or may even fail. This has health implications for vulnerable populations forced to consume water from alternative, often unimproved sources. The Sustainability Assessment Tool developed in this research serves as a diagnostic to inform decision-making, characterize specific needs of rural communities in the management of their water systems, and identify weaknesses in training regimes or support mechanisms. Fifteen specific measures result in a score of sustainability likely (SL), possible, or unlikely for eight indicators. A weighting factor is applied to each indicator to provide an overall sustainability score. The framework was tested on 61 statistically representative geographically stratified sample communities with rural water systems in the Dominican Republic. Twenty-three percent of systems were assessed to be SL, 59% sustainability possible, and for 18% it is unlikely the community will be able to overcome a significant challenge(s). As post-construction support increased so did community participation ( p = 0.005) and financial durability ( p = 0.004). Increased accounting transparency was correlated to increased compliance with user tariffs ( p p = 0.003) and community activity level ( p = 0.005).
81 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a wide range of meanings, beliefs, values and taboos surrounded local notions and ideas of water and sanitation which were noted to determine available responsive practices and norms.
Abstract: This paper focuses on water meanings, sanitation practices and hygiene behaviours from a cultural perspective in southern Nigeria. Attention was directed on how cultural understanding of water influences sanitation practices as well as the challenges such a relationship poses on public health and sanitation programmes in rural Nigeria. A wide range of meanings, beliefs, values and taboos surrounded local notions and ideas of water and sanitation which were noted to determine available responsive practices and norms. Socio-economic characteristics, physical location and cultural factors were used in explaining the degrees, scale and impact of observed practices and norms across space and time. The paper argues that it will make more practical sense if water and sanitation problems are addressed within the cultural foundation, to understand the realities of local circumstances of beliefs and values, than applying the logic of pure science. This is very important in designing interventions to reduce risks in deeply cultural communities.
32 citations
TL;DR: A conceptual framework for conducting an overall evaluation of the various outcomes and impacts of a Water Safety Plan is outlined, which can provide a common basis for implementers to objectively monitor and evaluate the range of outcome and impacts from WSPs, as well as a common understanding of the time frames within which those results may occur.
Abstract: A Water Safety Plan (WSP) is a preventive, risk management approach to ensure drinking water safety. The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines place WSPs within a larger 'framework for safe drinking-water' that links WSPs to health, creating an implicit expectation that implementation of WSPs will safeguard health in areas with acceptable drinking water quality. However, many intervening factors can come between implementation of an individual WSP and ultimate health outcomes. Evaluating the impacts of a WSP, therefore, requires a much broader analysis than simply looking at health improvements. Until recently, little guidance for the monitoring and evaluation of WSPs existed. Drawing examples from existing WSPs in various regions, this paper outlines a conceptual framework for conducting an overall evaluation of the various outcomes and impacts of a WSP. This framework can provide a common basis for implementers to objectively monitor and evaluate the range of outcomes and impacts from WSPs, as well as a common understanding of the time frames within which those results may occur. As implementers understand the various outcomes and impacts of WSPs beyond health, a strong evidence base for the effectiveness of WSPs will develop, further enabling the scaling up of WSP implementation and provision of better quality water.
26 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a comprehensive sustainability index for the assessment of water and sanitation management systems (WSMS) is presented, based on a conceptual framework that perceives sustainability as a combination of territorial, temporal, and personal aspects.
Abstract: A comprehensive sustainability index for the assessment of water and sanitation management systems (WSMS) is presented. The index was based on a conceptual framework that perceives sustainability as a combination of territorial, temporal, and personal aspects. A set of sustainability indicators was selected in agreement within this framework, and the ‘Water and Sanitation Sustainability Index’ (WASSI) was built. The WASSI was used to assess the sustainability of the WSMS of the city of Salta, Argentina. Indicators were calculated from information gathered by several means including literature reviews, questionnaires, visits, and participatory workshops. The index was sensitive to detect variations between different aspects of the local WSMS. It was also relatively independent to the quantity and quality of the information available. The WASSI could be a useful tool to assess and improve sustainability of water and sanitation throughout the management systems.
18 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the use of common table salt (NaCl) to reduce the turbidity of water containing suspended colloidal clay particles for use in the SODIS method was investigated.
Abstract: Solar water disinfection (SODIS) has proven to be effective at reducing diarrheal incidence in epidemiological intervention studies. However, the SODIS method is limited to waters of low turbidity (<30 NTU). This study investigates the use of common table salt (NaCl) to reduce the turbidity of water containing suspended colloidal clay particles for use in the SODIS method. Three representative clays found in tropical soils (kaolinite, illite and bentonite) were tested at three levels of turbidity (50, 100 and 200 NTU) for their flocculating behavior with multiple NaCl concentrations to find the optimum. Supernatants were tested for sodium concentration for comparison against health and taste thresholds. Results show that unlike kaolinite and illite, pure bentonite solutions were shown to be very responsive to NaCl and produced supernatants with as low as 4 NTU (98% particle removal efficiency). This study has shown that NaCl, in combination with high-activity clay particles in solution, may effectively reduce turbidity to levels suitable for SODIS treatment, thereby expanding the number of people who can utilize the technology effectively.
17 citations
TL;DR: Recommendations are provided to scale up the introduction of DEWATS in a more sustainable way in the framework of a city wide sanitation strategy.
Abstract: Under the Indonesian PPSP (Accelerated Sanitation Development for Human Settlements Program) thousands of new DEWATS (Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems) may be realized in the coming five years. Taking the massive scale of planned implementation into consideration an evaluation of the technical and financial-economic aspects and users' involvement for three different types of DEWATS was performed. Evaluated systems included (1) Settler (Set)+Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR)+Anaerobic Filter (AF), (2) Digester+Set+ABR+AF and (3) Settler, equalization, activated sludge, clarifier, filtration. All three systems complied with the current regulations. System 3 suggested the best overall performance on selected parameters in the monitored period. A clear reduction in specific investment costs per household was found with an increasing number of households per system. Only daily, regular operational costs were recovered from fees collected by the community, whereas costs for desludging, major repairs and capital and replacement costs were not. Surveys with users showed a different degree of involvement of local men and women in the planning stages of the project for the systems. Recommendations are provided to scale up the introduction of DEWATS in a more sustainable way in the framework of a city wide sanitation strategy.
15 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the usefulness of the LCCA framework and methodology in addressing slippage and sustainability issues in the WASH sector in the State of Andhra Pradesh (AP), India.
Abstract: This paper illustrates the usefulness of the life-cycle costs approach (LCCA) framework and methodology in addressing slippage and sustainability issues in the WASH sector in the State of Andhra Pradesh (AP), India. The paper examines the actual cost of provision in 40 villages spread over two agro-climatic zones by cost components and identifies the gaps in (public) investments and how these gaps are responsible for poor, inequitable and unsustainable service delivery. The analysis brings out clearly that government expenditure on WASH is almost exclusively capital expenditure on infrastructure while other important cost components like planning and designing, capital maintenance, source sustainability, water quality, etc., receive little or no allocation. Moreover, the actual life of infrastructure is much less than the normative life span, which is the basis for cost estimates. This results in ad hoc investments in capital maintenance expenditure and poor service levels. The key message of the paper is that “the rural drinking water sector is underfunded and funding allocations for rural water are distorted”. It is argued that budget allocations to the drinking water sector need to be revised with due allocation for other important components such as source sustainability, capital maintenance, water quality and climate change, etc. The paper argues in favour of a paradigm shift in terms of developing a comprehensive and realistic costing mechanism that addresses various aspects of drinking water like slippage, water quality, etc. LCCA is one such tool that can contribute towards achieving water security at the household level.
14 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors applied a mixed methodological approach to examine the dynamic interactions between the supply and demand of sanitation in three rural districts in Malawi and found that households expressed despondency at having to consistently rebuild collapsed, unlined pit latrines.
Abstract: Formative market research is the first step in developing evidence-based sanitation marketing programs. In Malawi, the design, implementation and evaluation of rural sanitation marketing programs has been limited. This study applied a mixed methodological approach to examine the dynamic interactions between the supply and demand of sanitation in three rural districts. The supply assessment identified an extremely limited range of latrine options. Sanitation suppliers reported very low household demand for their existing latrine options. An additional constraint reported by suppliers was householders' perception of a hardware subsidy for latrine construction. The demand assessment found a key constraint of constructing an unlined pit latrine was their short time-in-use (11–13 months). Householders expressed despondency at having to consistently rebuild collapsed, unlined pit latrines. For brick-lined latrines, a key barrier was affordability combined with an over-estimation of construction costs. Key motivations to construct brick-lined latrines included product attributes and social drivers. Wide variations in access to income and use of micro-finance organizations were recorded within and across the study sites. Formative market research is an iterative process from which new lines of investigation arise. This study provides information that will provide a foundation for the ongoing research, design, implementation and monitoring of rural sanitation marketing programs in Malawi.
14 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a structured questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, participatory approaches such as focus group discussion (FGD) and mass gathering were carried out in Kenya to assess social acceptance and scope of scaling up of UDDTs.
Abstract: A urine diversion dehydration toilet (UDDT) is a kind of toilet which can be used to recover resources such as nutrients and can also be an option to improve the sanitary situation in low income countries. A structured questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, participatory approaches such as focus group discussion (FGD) and mass gathering were carried out in Kenya to assess social acceptance and scope of scaling up of UDDTs. The results showed that almost all respondents among UDDT users and non-users have overcome social and cultural barriers to accept UDDTs. Most UDDT users were applying UDDT products as fertilizers on their farms. It is recommended to promote coordination and networking of local community based organizations in order to replicate UDDTs.
TL;DR: Exceeding storage time recommendations impacted treatment efficacy, as 87% of reported treaters with TCR ≥ 0.2 mg/L storing their water ≤ 24 hours met World Health Organization (WHO) E. coli guideline values.
Abstract: Household water treatment with sodium hypochlorite has been shown to reduce self-reported diarrheal disease in developing countries. Reported hypochlorite use, time since treatment, total chlorine residual (TCR), and E. coli concentration results from 589 household surveys in rural Kenya were analyzed to quantify the effect of exceeding recommended 24 hour post-treatment water storage time in ceramic pots. Exceeding storage time recommendations impacted treatment efficacy, as 87% of reported treaters with TCR ≥ 0.2 mg/L storing their water ≤ 24 hours met World Health Organization (WHO) E. coli guideline values, compared to 77% of reported treaters with TCR ≥ 0.2 mg/L storing water >24 hours ( p = 0.024) and 7% of reported non-treaters. Implementing organizations face the trade-off between promoting treating water every 24 hours and accepting slightly compromised efficacy.
TL;DR: Evaluated the efficiency of slow sand filtration to treat water from Gaviao reservoir in the city of Pacatuba, Ceara, Brazil, which has exhibited phytoplankton density of approximately 10 5 cells/mL with a prevalence of cyanobacteria representing over 90% of total cells, and demonstrated that slow sand Filtration can be used to achieve water purification that meets federal standards.
Abstract: Potential problems arising from the presence of cyanobacteria in water intended for human consumption have been reported by several researchers. Regarding water treatment plants, intact cells of cyanobacteria should be removed to avoid the release of cyanotoxins due to cell lysis. Water treatment techniques with different degrees of complexity can be employed but, whenever possible, the method of easiest installation, operation and maintenance should be selected, especially for non-industrialized countries and rural communities. In this context, research was carried out to evaluate the efficiency of slow sand filtration to treat water from Gaviao reservoir in the city of Pacatuba, Ceara, Brazil, which has exhibited phytoplankton density of approximately 10 5 cells/mL with a prevalence of cyanobacteria representing over 90% of total cells. The results have demonstrated that slow sand filtration can be used to achieve water purification that meets federal standards. However, it was established that filtration through beds of gravel (prefilter) before the slow sand filtration is essential. The removal of phytoplankton reached values of approximately 97% and the filter run duration was more than 70 days. Furthermore, the slow sand filter was very efficient in removing total coliforms, with removal of up to 99.98%.
TL;DR: Although participatory planning is time consuming, it is worth investing as it builds local ownership and assists in informed decision-making processes for selecting affordable sanitation options that best meet user needs.
Abstract: The Household-Centered Environmental Sanitation (HCES) planning approach was tested for the first time in Nepal in a peri-urban setting during 2009/2011, in order to validate the novel planning approach, identify challenges and improve the process. The participatory multi-stakeholder process involved household mapping and surveys, user needs identification and prioritization and a stakeholder assessment. Following an expert9s assessment of potential sanitation options, community sensitization campaigns through exposure visits, a sanitation bazaar and focused community interactions were conducted. Among the three sanitation alternatives, users showed strong preference to set up a simplified sewerage system with a decentralized wastewater treatment. The paper critically discusses the key challenges faced when developing environmental sanitation plans. Setting the right balance between empowering people to take informed decisions and keeping the participation process intact until the final stage was a major challenge. Although participatory planning is time consuming, it is worth investing as it builds local ownership and assists in informed decision-making processes for selecting affordable sanitation options that best meet user9s needs.
TL;DR: The integrated rural sanitation system (SISAR) as mentioned in this paper is based on the idea of creating a confederation of local user groups which come together on a regional basis, and through an adequate institutional setup, are responsible for managing SISAR and assuring the adequate provision of water supply and in some cases, wastewater services.
Abstract: Investments for basic rural sanitation programs should not only focus on the construction of new installations, but also on the necessity of implementing proper management models that guarantee the operational and financial sustainability of the investments. The integrated rural sanitation system (SISAR) is based on the idea of creating a confederation of local user groups which come together on a regional basis, and through an adequate institutional setup, are responsible for managing SISAR and assuring the adequate provision of water supply and in some cases, wastewater services. Financial sustainability is achieved by the implementation of tariffs for water consumption and provision of wastewater services generating revenue which is redistributed among all systems in order to cover all operational, maintenance and administration costs. Important stakeholders in the model include, besides the users, local and state government and international financing institutions responsible for financing the investments in the construction of rural water supply and wastewater systems. This document focuses on the experience and results achieved by SISAR in the Brazilian state of Ceara. In 2001 eight SISARs began providing improved water supply services in 66 settlements. Today, more than 560 settlements (more than 330,000 inhabitants) are supplied by SISARs.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors collected compost from 45 UDDT in Bolivia and analyzed for physical, chemical, and biological parameters, including pH, carbon, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and carbon stability.
Abstract: Urine-diversion dehydration toilets (UDDT) are common throughout the developing world, and the toilet product is widely used as compost. There is no comprehensive research to date that characterizes the compost to determine its quality, extent of pathogen inactivation, and the effects of climate and bulking materials on the compost. Compost was collected from 45 UDDT in Bolivia and analyzed for physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Eighty percent and 56% of samples did not meet acceptable compost guidelines for moisture content and pH, respectively, indicating desiccation was the dominant process in UDDT. Bulking materials significantly impacted compost characteristics in terms of pH, carbon, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and carbon stability (P<0.05). Composts with ash exhibited, on average, low carbon concentrations (4.9%) and high pH values (9.7), which can be harmful to plants and composting microorganisms. Composts with sawdust exhibited, on average, high carbon concentrations (40.0%) and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios (31.0). Climate had no significant impact on chemical characteristics, however composts from humid regions had significantly higher moisture contents (34.4%) than those from arid climates (24.8%) (P<0.05). Viable Ascaris lumbricoides ova were identified in 31% of samples, including samples with high pH, low moisture contents, and long storage times.
TL;DR: In this article, a storage-reliability-yield (SRY) analysis of RWH systems in Bisate, Rwanda for a period of 20 years with a range of normalized storage volumes and yields was conducted.
Abstract: Rainwater harvesting (RWH) entails capture of rainwater falling on a roof and conveyance to a storage tank for later use as domestic water supply. During dry weather, dust and pollutants accumulate on the roof surface and are subsequently washed off with the ‘first flush’ at the beginning of the next rain. Diverting the first flush can improve the quality of stored water but at the cost of reducing the reliability with which the system can supply water. A storage-reliability-yield (SRY) analysis of RWH was completed for Bisate, Rwanda for a period of 20 years with a range of normalized storage volumes and yields. Reliability expressed as days per year on which demand was met was determined for alternative first-flush strategies and compared to the reliability of an otherwise equivalent system without first-flush diversion. Diversion of the first flush was found to reduce reliability by at most 8%. Analysis of three existing RWH systems in Bisate indicates that a recommended 1 mm first-flush diversion would reduce the number of days the system meets demand by no more than 7 days per year.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors presented a method where sludge drying within a pond is effected by rooted plants; after drying, the sludge is removed with a mid-sized excavator.
Abstract: Wastewater stabilization ponds have long been considered a sustainable treatment option for developing regions. Sludge buildup in primary ponds is also a sustainability issue since ponds must be desludged every 2–15 years depending on their design and solids loading. Pond systems in developing regions are often designed without a desludging plan and operated without the amortized desludging cost included in the operation and maintenance budget. This paper presents a method where sludge drying within a pond is effected by rooted plants; after drying, the sludge is removed with a mid-sized excavator. The method was tested in the desludging of a primary pond in Tela, Honduras, where sludge 4 m deep was dried to a solid (TS ≈ 18%) to a depth >1 m using the wetland plant Ludwigia octovalvis . The data suggest that both evapotranspiration and drainage through the root system contributed to dewatering. The total cost in 2011 US dollars was $13,716 or $4.47 m 3 removed, which was paid from the municipality9s general fund without external aid. The method presented is sustainable, and serves as a model for desludging operations where excessive sludge accumulation has occurred – a likely scenario in many primary ponds in developing regions.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the impact of community participation in participatory planning in the water and sanitation sector in two countries: Lao People9s Democratic Republic (PDR) and Nepal.
Abstract: This paper aims to contribute to the growing body of literature on evaluation of community participation in the water and sanitation sector. The first part discusses the conceptual underpinnings of participatory approaches. The paper then analyses stakeholder perceptions about the Household-centred Environmental Sanitation (HCES) approach, a participatory planning approach recently validated in two countries: Lao People9s Democratic Republic (PDR) and Nepal. Post intervention surveys were conducted with experts and key informants in both countries to assess satisfaction regarding degree of participation, effectiveness of planning outcomes and process efficiency of the participatory planning process. It specifically looks at the variability in people9s perceptions about the costs and benefits of community participation. Empirical findings show that experts and participants show high satisfaction rates regarding involvement in decision making. The earlier and stronger residents were involved in the process, the higher the satisfaction rate. In a second part, the main findings of expert interviews are contrasted with the perceptions of the community at large which participated in the participatory planning process. A better understanding of community participation in urban settings is needed regarding skills, motivation, time, and defining the right levels of participation.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored rainwater collecting system use within rural Trinidadian communities and found that the majority of participants who harvested rainwater were very satisfied with the quality of their water and relatively few (212) were concerned that it may pose a risk to their health.
Abstract: Rainwater harvesting is a well-established practice in many parts of the world. In the right environment it can provide a convenient, inexpensive and sustainable source of potable water. This study explored rainwater collecting system use within rural Trinidadian communities. Data regarding participants' demographic details, water practices, health- and water-related beliefs were collected from six separate regions late in 2009 using a purpose designed questionnaire. The findings, obtained from the 1,523 study participants resident in 292 households were analysed. Almost half (130) of the participating households utilised rainwater as their main supply although some found it necessary to switch to alternative sources during dry periods. The majority of participants (478) who harvested rainwater were very satisfied with the quality of their water and relatively few (212) were concerned that it may pose a risk to their health. Rainwater harvesting systems are well established in Trinidad and are well accepted by those who use them. Further research is needed to establish why more households do not adopt this technology as alternative sources remain inconsistent and inadequate in many respects. These findings will assist individuals and government agencies in making informed decisions when planning and managing water sources on the island.
TL;DR: The major cause of outbreaks was the cross-contamination of drinking-water distribution by wastewater, and the main areas to be addressed for the future are: service quality, source protection, delivery interruption and subsequent microbial contamination.
Abstract: Investigations and established causal relationship of waterborne outbreaks (WOs) from developing countries and countries in transition are sparse and mainly centered on agents, such as from Vibrio cholera and Shigella dysenteriae. Information, however, prevails in countries like Armenia with an epidemiological system in place. Groundwater is the main drinking water source (96%); water is delivered intermittently 12–14 hours per day. In 2005 about 7% of all infant deaths were attributed to intestinal infectious diseases. Recorded information on WOs and supply systems (1992–2010) was obtained from published official sources, from ‘gray-literature reports’, primary data collection from statistical records and through personal communication. Epidemiological descriptive analysis was made and Geographical Information System (GIS) applied for results visualization. In-depth outbreak analysis was conducted on selected cases. Overall, 104 WOs caused by different etiological agents were revealed. The main drinking water source in areas where outbreaks occurred was the centralized water supplies (69.2%) based on GIS mapping. The major cause of outbreaks was the cross-contamination of drinking-water distribution by wastewater. In Armenia the main areas to be addressed for the future are: service quality, source protection, delivery interruption and subsequent microbial contamination.
TL;DR: In this paper, a new methodology for the analysis and assessment of water supply regimes is presented, where relevant system variables of a problem context are identified, and their interdependencies are assessed and interpreted.
Abstract: In this paper, a new methodology for the analysis and assessment of water supply regimes is presented. The problems of water supply management in developing countries are multidimensional and interdependent. Conventional methods, which only deal with separated and isolated issues, are not appropriate to deal with these problems. The method presented here, however, can comprehend the whole system. Therefore, using this method, conclusions for the management of adapted institutional and technological transformations can be drawn. In this study, relevant system variables of a problem context are identified, and their interdependencies are assessed and interpreted. This is done by using a method of qualitative interview analysis (grounded theory) and a cybernetic modelling approach (sensitivity analysis). In doing so, it is possible to identify outstanding variables which are essential to understand the system. These variables reveal the weakest links, driving forces, systemic stabilisers and the sustainability indicators of the system. The case study area is the Cuvelai-Etosha-Basin in central northern Namibia where a large-scale water supply system has been established. The water supply in the region is determined by the dependence on external water resources, high precipitation variability, absence of perennial rivers, saline groundwater, population growth and urbanisation.
TL;DR: In this paper, an econometric water demand model for forecasting future residential water requirements for a densely populated area of Jaipur city is presented, where the authors used an OLS regression model to measured the impact of household income (I), age of respondent (A\_R), household size (SIZE, age of home (A/R), wealth (W), asset score (AS), dwelling status (DWELL), monthly expenditure on water supply (EXP\_WS), number of bathrooms (BATHR), and number of rooms (RMS) on
Abstract: Water demand forecasting has become an essential ingredient in effective water resource planning and management. In water-scare urban areas of developing countries, this emphasis on accurate forecasting is particularly important for effective water resource planning and management. This paper presents an econometric water demand model for forecasting future residential water requirements for a densely populated area of Jaipur city. This study used an ordinary least squared (OLS) regression model to measured the impact of household income (I), age of respondent (A\_R), household size (SIZE), age of home (A\_H), wealth (W), asset score (AS), dwelling status (DWELL), monthly expenditure on water supply (EXP\_WS), number of bathrooms (BATHR), and number of rooms (RMS) on residential water use (RWU) using data from a survey of 149 representative households in the study area. Empirical results indicate that residential water demand of the study area is characterized by I, SIZE, AS, and EXP\_WS, with SIZE (0.542) and AS (0.418) having a major influence on RWU, as shown by their high standardized model coefficient values at 95% confidence intervals. Therefore major saving should be achieved by technological developments in water efficient appliances combined with education in efficient use of water.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the performance and cost savings of an innovative design of a trickling filter (TF) for small population sizes, developed at the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil referred to as an Open Trickling Filter (OTF ).
Abstract: We aimed to evaluate the performance and cost savings of an innovative design of a trickling filter (TF) for small population sizes, developed at the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil referred to as an open trickling filter ( OTF ). The OTF had no side walls and no perforated bottom slab, and was applied for the post-treatment of sanitary sewage from an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. The OTF had crushed-stone packing (3.5 m high) and was operated with an average surface hydraulic loading rate of 4.1 m 3 m -2 d -1 and an average volumetric organic loading rate of 0.10 kg BOD m -3 d -1 (biochemical oxygen demand). The average concentrations obtained at the OTF effluent were 48 mg TSS L -1 (total suspended solids), 132 mg COD L -1 (chemical oxygen demand), 51 mg BOD L -1 , 19 mg TKN L -1 (total Kjeldahl nitrogen), 16 mg NH + 4 -N L -1 and 10 mg NO - 3 -N L -1 , complying with local discharge standards. Analysis of the construction costs indicated savings of 74% compared to conventional TF. Based on the performance, compactness, simplicity and reduced capital costs, it is believed that the proposed OTF is a good alternative for small communities, especially in developing countries.
TL;DR: In this paper, the participatory processes in environmental sanitation were assessed using newspaper articles published in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, and different categories, such as discrete or continuous processes, passive or proactive populations, and top-down or bottom-up models of governance, were established.
Abstract: Participation in the field of environmental sanitation has low visibility and is little studied, especially in developing countries where democracy is a relatively recent reality. It is therefore pertinent to assess how social participation in sanitation occurs and how it is presented to society by the media. In this study, the participatory processes in environmental sanitation were assessed using newspaper articles published in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Different categories, such as discrete or continuous processes, passive or proactive populations, and top-down or bottom-up models of governance, were established. Although participation in and conflicts regarding environmental sanitation have been considered to be scarce, they were still observed in some instances, indicating that they occur in a covert or even invisible manner.
TL;DR: In this article, the potential of CPWC for As(III) removal through batch and continuous column studies was evaluated, and the results indicated significant potential for CPWC to remove arsenic in Assam groundwater.
Abstract: Groundwater is the main source of domestic water for the rural population of Assam, India, which contains arsenic (As(III)) in the range 50–200 μg L −1 . The people use variants of indigenous household iron filter units fabricated using community prepared wooden charcoal (CPWC) as one of the filtering medium to remove excess concentration of Fe(II), but no efforts are made to reduce As(III) levels. The present work evaluates the potential of CPWC for As(III) removal through batch and continuous column studies. The As(III) uptake appears to be rapid in the first 60 min, and achieves equilibrium by 180 min. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model best describes the experimental kinetics data. The Freundlich isotherm represents the equilibrium data. The continuous column studies yield decreased volume of treated water at breakthrough with increase in flow rates, whereas the volume of treated water increases with increase in bed depth. The error between predicted and experimental values of service time varies between 0.28 and 21.85%. The study indicates significant potential of CPWC for As(III) removal.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed and tested a water-efficient laundry system designed for informal settlements in the eThekwini municipality of South Africa, based on crosscurrent and countercurrent cascades for washing clothes.
Abstract: In the informal settlements of eThekwini municipality, South Africa, laundry activities are typically undertaken at local standpipes and washbasins of community ablution blocks (CABs), and are characterised by high levels of water consumption and greywater production. Since greywater contains a high pollution load, including sodium tripolyphosphate, it poses a significant environmental and public health risk. The overall objective of this study was to develop and test a water-efficient laundry system designed for informal settlements. Initial fieldwork at a standpipe and CAB in eThekwini municipality showed respectively 56 and 58% of users were in favour of a water-efficient laundry system based upon sharing washing water. Subsequent laboratory work assessed crosscurrent and countercurrent cascades for washing clothes. Under optimised washing conditions at a detergent dose of 5 g/kg water, specific water consumption of 5 kg water/kg clothes and three rinsing phases it was determined that the countercurrent method wasted 33% less water. Thus the countercurrent cascade has great potential for minimising greywater production in South African informal settlements. Future work should concentrate on evaluating greywater production, detergent usage and social acceptability in the field.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of European Union (EU) donor support to sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa and propose a method for investigating the effectiveness of national sanitation programmes through linking aid flows to sanitation outcomes in terms of trends in open defecation; this can be used to locate the relative performance of different countries.
Abstract: Within sub-Saharan Africa, 569 million people, amounting to 69% of the population, do not use improved sanitation. This study presents an overview of European Union (EU) donor support to sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa and proposes a method for investigating the effectiveness of national sanitation programmes through linking aid flows to sanitation outcomes in terms of trends in open defecation; this can be used to locate the relative performance of different countries. The work addresses key concerns of the African Ministers' Council on Water and the European donors around the need to increase support to sanitation. Results show that EU donors are the major source of external finance for sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. Case studies from Mozambique, Uganda and Burkina Faso show that the majority of national planned expenditure on sanitation comes from donor sources, with EU donors being the substantive contributors. National policies on subsidy for sanitation and expenditure allocations vary extremely widely and do not necessarily align with sanitation outcomes. EU member states' donor policies on sanitation are consistent and well-aligned with those of the African Union; this is a major achievement for Europe and Africa. Inadequate national monitoring of sanitation expenditure remains a constraint to determining programme effectiveness.