Showing papers in "Language in Society in 1995"

Language choice, social institutions, and symbolic domination

Abstract: The study of language choice and code-switching can illuminate the ways in which, through language, social institutions with ethnolinguistically diverse staff and clients exercise symbolic domination. Using the example of French-language minority education in Ontario (Canada), this article examines the ways in which ethnic and institutional relations of power overlap or crosscut, forming constraints which have paradoxical effects. In an analysis of two classrooms, it is shown how an ideology of institutional monolingualism is supported or undermined by program structure, curriculum content, and the social organization of turntaking, and how individuals use language choices and code-switching to collaborate with or resist these arrangements. The effect of these processes is to contain paradoxes and to produce new relations of power

Plagiarism and ideology: Identity in intercultural discourse

Abstract: The concept of plagiarism, as used both in considerations of academic writing and in international negotiations over intellectual copyright, assumes a model of communication based on autonomous, rational, individuals who behave as originators of their own discourses. But studies of communication, beginning with Goffman's concepts of production format and footing - and also including the concepts of enactment, social role, face, politeness pragmatics, metaphors of self and communication, and innatist/social concepts of knowledge - indicate that such a unified, autonomous, and original communicative identity presupposes an oversimplified model of communication, centrally based in the ideology of the rational, autonomous individual which has been dominant in Europe since the Enlightenment. The concept of plagiarism masks the assertion of this ideological position. (Plagiarism, ideology, identity, intercultural discourse) Intellectual copyright is a term which has been in the news for years. International negotiations over this concept cover everything from scholarly works to brand names of products and pornographic videos. Scholars and teachers have a primary interest in questions of intellectual copyright - both in regard to our own writing, and as an aspect of teaching expected forms of attribution to our students. One suspects that pornography and brand names are somewhat more central to the lawyers who participate in international negotiations; nevertheless attribution of authorship in academic writing remains a perennial problem in writing, and crosses lines of cultural identity. Treatments of academic plagiarism tend to presuppose a common ideological ground in the creative, original, individual who, as an autonomous scholar, presents his/her work to the public in his/her own name. Thus the issues raised in The Chronicle of Higher Education concerning a historian's originality (Magner 1993a,b) focus directly on the establishment of the facts

The political economy of code choice in a "revolutionary society": Tamil-English bilingualism in Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Abstract: This article explores the persistence of Tamil-English bilingualism in the Marxist/Nationalist de-facto separate state of Jaffna (Sri Lanka) through an integrated macro- and micro-sociolinguistic analysis of code choice in the community. While Tamil is dominant at present, the international hegemony of English is nevertheless subtly felt. There are now few L2 dominant or balanced bilinguals; grammatical competence in "standard English" is declining; Tamil has taken over many conventionally English domains; extensive use of unmixed English is reduced to a few formal contexts; and political pressure proscribes English. However, through code-switching activity, English continues to be used in a more pervasive form than ever before, in conventional and unconventional contexts, with complex communicative competence. Code-switching helps reconcile the socio-psychological conflicts of the community and assures the continuity of bilingualism (defying prophecies of English death), with the possibility of an Englishized Tamil becoming an independent code. (Bilingualism, code-switching, English, language choice)* The city of Jaffna in the north of Sri Lanka has historically been the cultural, religious, and political center of the Tamils, apart from being the seat of the Tamil Kingdom in pre-colonial times. The peninsula on which the city is located constitutes the Jaffna Tamil speech community - which speaks a distinct, "prestigious" Tamil dialect - while being geographically bounded and socio-culturally integrated. Having seen much violence for about three decades in the conflict with the majority Sinhala state of the south, Jaffna is a highly politicized and ethnolinguistically conscious community, determined to achieve self-determination and form a separate state in the north and east of the island (provisionally labeled Tamil Eelam). With this aspiration it presently sustains a highly disciplined, efficient, and committed militant organization in the Marxist/Nationalist LTTE (Liberation Tigers

A Sociolinguistic analysis of address forms in Yoruba

Abstract: This article provides a descriptive analysis of the entire system of address forms in Yoruba, a Defoid language of the Niger-Congo phylum, spoken principally in the western part of Nigeria and to a lesser extent in the Republics of Benin and Togo. With data from short radio and TV plays, unobtrusive observation of actual usage, and introspection, it was discovered that the choices made by interlocutors are guided by the perceived social relationship that exists between them. The principal indices of this among the Yoruba are age, social status, and kinship. Nevertheless, certain peculiarities are noticeable. For instance, the dichotomy of power vs. solidarity (Brown & Gilman 1960) becomes blurred with respect to Yoruba kinship terms of address; thus solidarity does not necessarily imply equality among the Yoruba. (Politeness, address, kinship, Africa, Yoruba)

How to get a laugh in Fijian: Code-switching and humor

Abstract: Code-switching from the Fijian language into a variety of Hindi is commonly used for joking among indigenous Fijians. Examples of this codeswitching are described here, and its role in Fijian joking relationships is outlined. A survey of code-switching used for humor in other societies shows that code-switching may be a signal for joking, that the switching itself may be considered humorous, and that the variety to which one switches may be used for humorous mockery or parody. Three different psychological approaches to the study of humor throw some light on why code-switching into Hindi is funny to Fijians. A final discussion examines code-switching in relation to both unintegrated borrowing and style-shifting. (Code-switching, borrowing, humor, joking, Fijian, Hindi)* One sure way to get a laugh when speaking Fijian is to switch into Hindi, the language of the Indian population of Fiji. This normally occurs in strictly Fijian company (the term "Fijian" is conventionally restricted to the indigenous inhabitants of the country), and often in speaking to certain relatives. I describe here how this Fijian/Hindi code-switching is used for joking; and how, in modern Fijian society, it sometimes fulfills traditional kinship obligations. It should be noted that code-switching has been defined in many ways, but here it is used to mean changing between two linguistic varieties which are perceived by their speakers to be different languages or dialects (Milroy 1987:171). The article goes on to survey sociolinguistic and anthropological studies of the use of this type of code-switching for humorous effect in other societies. Then it briefly analyzes this method of joking from various perspectives of psychological research into humor. Finally, the article discusses some general theoretical implications for sociolinguistic stud

Working toward play: Complexity in children's fantasy activities

Abstract: Children's play activities are widely perceived as developing from primitive to increasingly complex forms of social organization, as children mature and acquire interactional competency. Research following this traditional, developmentally oriented approach postulates that sports and games with rules are the most advanced and complex form of play activity; activities involving fantasy and pretend-play are viewed in comparison as considerably less complex. This article argues that fantasy play encounters exhibit complex features in their own right, and that long-held distinctions between higher-order games and fantasy play are conceptually overdrawn. The argument is grounded in a conversation analytic study of the play activities of a cross-sex, mixed-age neighborhood play group. This analysis focuses on the endogenous social organization of a fantasy play encounter. (Conversation analysis, children's play, socialization, social psychology)

Structural convergence and language change: Evidence from Serbian/English code-switching

Abstract: This study investigates how the process of structural convergence common in many bilingual communities (cf. Clyne 1987, 1994) interacts with the process of code-switching. Data on Serbian/English code-switching indicate that there the process of structural convergence is reshaping the Serbian variety spoken by bilingual speakers. This process is reflected in code-switching situations in the form of what Myers-Scotton 1993b calls “matrix language” (ML) turnover: the matrix language in code-switched utterances can only be assigned if one considers the process of structural convergence occurring in Serbian. These data indicate that code-switched utterances in which the diachronic ML turnover is under-way present a very useful source of information not only for the analysis of code-switching, but also for the analysis of language change under conditions of contact. The findings of this study strongly suggest that any theoretical model of code-switching which aims at achieving universality needs also to take into consideration the results of the structural convergence that affects linguistic varieties in many code-switching bilingual communities. (Structural convergence and language change, Serbian, code-switching, Matrix Language Frame model)

The scarcity of Spanish-based creoles explained

Abstract: Most explanations for the scarcity of Spanish-based creoles have appealed to sociological factors. This article shows that, on the contrary, three historical factors determined the current distribution. First, the Spanish only began cultivating sugar after a century of concentrating on crops requiring smaller plantations; this allowed fuller acquisition of Spanish by the slaves, who then served as models for later arrivals. Second, the Spanish often took over areas formerly occupied by the Portuguese, thus encountering a previously existent pidgin. Third, the Spanish did not establish trade settlements in West Africa, where a Spanish pidgin could have emerged and been transported to the New World. These factors together manifested Spain's low commitment to establishing vigorously capitalistic enterprises in its possessions until the 19th century, which can be seen as the ultimate impediment to the pidginization of Spanish. (Pidgins and creoles, Spanish, Spain, diachronic linguistics, lexical diffusion, language transmission)

Southern Chinese dialects as a medium for reconciliation within Greater China

Abstract: Southern Chinese dialects – Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Hakka – have received little official support from the governments of the nations where Chinese is spoken; they are not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, and are often deeply stigmatized. Although China's language wars have paralleled cold war hostilities, unofficial forces in the 1990s are rapidly enhancing dialect prestige, as an economic boom increasingly links the “Greater China” of the People's Republic, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. (Chinese dialects, Mandarin, Cantonese, Min, Hakka, bilingualism, Hong Kong, Taiwan, official language)

Norway's “Sámi Language Act”: Emancipatory implications for the world's aboriginal peoples

Abstract: The Sami (formerly called Lapps) are the indigenous people of Arctic Scandinavia and northwest Russia. Legislation giving major language and cultural rights to Norway's Sami people was enacted in 1992. As an introduction to discussion of the impact of the Sami Language Act on Norwegian education, this article begins with an outline of the school- ing system in Norway. Its review of the act itself covers the following topics: the Sami culture and the Sami languages, social and political problems that affect the Sami, the place of the Sami languages in educa- tion, and recent educational changes that flow from the Sami Language Act. Three research questions, covering the practice and organization of bilingual aboriginal education in Norway, are then addressed at length. The article concludes by drawing emancipatory implications from the Sami experience for members of aboriginal cultures and for the future of aboriginal education generally. (Power and culture, Sami culture, minority education, native language education, bilingual education)* This study surveys the impact of the Sami Language Act in Norway and the relevance of those developments to the education of users of the world's aboriginal languages. Various ethnographic methodologies were used in the study: focus groups with key consultants in their institutional settings; un- structured and semi-structured interviews with other key consultants in their institutional settings, or while traveling or in informal contexts; documentary and archival analysis; and observation studies of schools and classrooms in the town of Kautokeino (in Sami, Guovdageaidnu). This is the cultural cen- ter of the Sami (formerly called Lapps) in the Nordic countries, located in Norway's northernmost county of Finnmark.

Troubled Waters: Argument as Sociability Revisited

Abstract: Schiffrin 1984 has claimed that there is a speech activity called “sociable argument,” characterized by the presence of discursive features such as vulnerability of argumentative frames and cooperative strategies. Although a form of talk aptly labeled “sociable argument” undoubtedly exists, Schiffrin’s analysis is problematic; the features she identifies as characteristic of this discursive category also show up in argument that is serious and non-sociable. This raises general questions about the nature of the criteria applicable to the definition of forms of talk. (Discourse analysis, argument, conflict, conversation, cooperation, rhetoric)*.

Bad and banned language: Triad secret societies, the censorship of the Cantonese vernacular, and colonial language policy in Hong Kong

Abstract: The language of Chinese secret societies ("triads") in Hong Kong can be studied by relating triad language to anti-languages, to taboo language, and to the status of the vernacular in sociolinguistic theory. Also examined here are the laws in Hong Kong concerning triad language, and the attitudes of government agencies charged with policing the media. One striking feature of the Hong Kong situation is that the use of triad jargon can in some circumstances constitute a serious criminal offense. However, triad language also appears to be a source of innovation, through the popular media, into mainstream Hong Kong Cantonese. Research on triad language is relevant to the relationship between colonialism and language control. (Cantonese, Hong Kong, colonialism, triad secret societies, censorship, vernacular, taboo language, criminal slang)* This article is concerned primarily with official perceptions of "bad language" - what is harmful, and why - considered in the context of Hong Kong,1 where a ban on such language is enforced by censors of the Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority (TELA). In particular, we wish to analyze official policy toward "triad language," i.e. the language of Hong Kong street gangs and secret societies. The focus of our sociolinguistic argument is the claim that triad language is a source of innovation for Hong Kong Cantonese. As part of the background to this study, we have conducted extensive research into vernacular Cantonese over a period of four years. This has included the study of Cantonese slang in the popular media, questionnaire research into swearing and taboo language among school children, and a series of interviews with younger triad members. Other interviews were

Variation in a secret creole language of Panama

Abstract: This article describes a secret language called "Gypsy" spoken in an English-derived creole speech community on the Caribbean island of Bastimentos in Panama. Data from this cryptolect are used as a means to examine language variation on the island. This article highlights the fact that a range of English-derived creole varieties exists in Bastimentos, lacking the effects of a lexically related metropolitan variety in the same geographical area. (Creole, cryptolect, Panama, secret language, speech specific contexts illustrate some of its more common uses: children who wish to exclude other children from their peer group, students who wish to speak covertly in front of teachers, parents who wish to speak privately in front of children, and residents (adults or otherwise) who wish to speak without being understood in front of outsiders who may understand the local creole vari- ety. In fact, it is in this last context that I first became aware of the existence of Gypsy: Some speakers realized that I understood a good deal of the local creole, and thus wished, for several reasons, to speak in front of me with- out my understanding what was being said. Here I describe this secret language and also provide some explanation of lexical, phonological, and syntactic variation found between the creole and corresponding cryptolect utterances. All syllables in Gypsy are based on the manipulation of English-derived creole input syllables, and the subsequent creation of new syllables built around the consonantal phoneme /g/. For example, a creole utterance such as /we im de/ 'Where is he/she?' often becomes /weger higim igiz/, which, if one reverses the phonological rules of the cryptolect, reveals /wer him iz/, a commonly heard structural and

Tense variation as a performance feature in a Scottish folktale

Abstract: Analysis of two versions of a long fairy tale, “The Green Man of Knowledge,” as narrated by the same storyteller on two separate occasions, shows considerable variation in the use of performance features, especially the historic present tense. One narration is in “additive” style, with the historic present as the norm; the other shows a gradual “breakthrough to performance,” with the historic present dominant in certain segments. There are more patterns in the use of this tense, and more factors affecting it, than have hitherto been acknowledged; it may be instructive to see how it co-occurs with other performance features. The discussion raises questions about the usefulness of quantitative analysis, and about issues of meaning, genre, audience, and the individuality of the storyteller. (Folklore; Scots; narratology; genre; rhetoric; qualitative analysis)

The problem of scholarly predisposition: G. Bailey, N. Maynor, & P. Cukor-Avila, eds., The emergence of Black English: Text and commentary

Abstract: The emergence of Black English (EBE) is a uniquely important book, not only for the study of African-American English but for sociolinguistics as a whole. Its greatest importance for the field as a whole is in its explicit and implicit messages about how theoretically motivated self-deception distorts researchers' recognition and even perception of relevant data. At least since the early 1970s, linguists have been aware of this phenomenon in intuitive approaches to syntax - when it became evident, at least to outsiders, that it was involved in the disagreements of many researchers concerning their "grammaticality" judgments of syntactic constructions crucial to their competing theories. The sociolinguistic literature, perhaps because of its strong empirical and relativistic background, has not shown overt awareness of the phenomenon - i.e. until the publication of EBE. The phenomenon is manifested in an unusually clear way in EBE, and is the focus of some attention. However, that attention is limited to a particular theoretical controversy in the study of African-American English, polarized in the conflict between the "divergence" and "convergence" hypotheses (instigated by Labov 1985 and others, and criticized in Butters 1989; cf. Spears 1992). Therefore its larger significance for sociolinguistics is only implied. The book is likely to receive elsewhere the attention of specialists focusing on its implications for the par

“Don't go on my property!”: A case study of transactions of user rights

Abstract: Two hours of conversation among three children were examined for oral disputes concerning use of beds in their bedroom. Examination of transcript segments revealed that the children signaled a social order governing use of property and objects. The children were found to negotiate such use on an ongoing basis, and the form and content of the disputes differed dramatically according to whether the beds were being claimed for the purpose of play or sleep. The conversations reflected the ongoing construction and negotiation of social representations, within shared frames or finite provinces of meaning, for use of space and objects. (Ethnomethodology, conversation analysis, property, ownership)* At times, the function of a conversation is nothing beyond the prolongation of an interaction; in general, however, members of an interaction accomplish certain ends and constitute social orders with their talk. Through talk, members of society win fights (Brenneis & Lein 1977), change or mark social structure (Labov 1982, Mehan 1983, Katriel 1985, Maynard 1985), coordinate cognitions (Resnick 1991), and (as Rommetveit MS puts it), create and transmit social representations. The social representation under consideration here is use of space and the objects in it. The focus is on the social order which children construct in their argumentation over (a) who gets rights to particular objects, and (b) of what those rights consist. As Goffman 1971 so aptly pointed out, territorial claims are at the crucial center of social organization, with cultural members signaling and defending claims within a culturally shared and created system of reference. Snare 1972, in his analysis of ownership, also argued that property and possession are fundamentally involved in ordinary speech, and that language is used to index ownership. This state is not unique to adults. James ([1890] 1950:422) was one of the first to note in print that many of the earliest words and quarrels of children (D 1995 Cambridge University Press 0047-4045/95 $7.50 + .10