Showing papers in "Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin in 1993"
TL;DR: The authors reviewed the communal/exchange distinction, discuss what it does and does not mean, and address specific issues raised by Batson, concluding that the difference between communal and exchange relationships is not limited to the breadth of benefits exchanged.
Abstract: Replying to Batson (this issue), who argues that the difference between communal and exchange relationships is less than might be imagined, the authors review the communal/exchange distinction, discuss what it does and does not mean, and address specific issues raised by Batson. They conclude, contrary to claims by Batson, that (a) ingratiation cannot account for all the findings supporting the communal/exchange distinction; (b) if desire for a communal relationship leads to ingratiation, that does not contradict the distinction; (c) if communal norms are followed for other than altruistic reasons, that does not undermine the distinction, (d) the difference between communal and exchange relationships is not limited to the breadth of benefits exchanged; (e) the difference between communal and exchange relationships is not limited to a difference in etiquette; rather, the communal/exchange distinction provides a theoretical explanation for the difference in etiquette.
697Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, an integrative model of how dimensions of contact (quantitative, qualitative, and intergroup) are related to intergroup anxiety, perceived outgroup variability, and out group attitude was proposed.
Abstract: This study tested an integrative model of how dimensions of contact (quantitative, qualitative, and intergroup) are related to intergroup anxiety, perceived out-group variability, and out group attitude. Data were collected in a field study of minority (Hindu) and majority (Muslim) religious groups in Bangladesh. Path analysis revealed that dimensions of contact were significant predictors of all three criterion variables, although different dimensions emerged as predictors in each case, and there were some interactions with subjects' religious group. AU three dimensions of contact were associated with intergroup anxiety, but whereas quantitative contact had a significant impact on perceived out-group variability, qualitative contact was associated with out-group attitude. The model highlights the central role of intergroup anxiety as associated with dimensions of contact and as a predictor of perceived out-group variability and out-group attitude.
693Â citations
TL;DR: The authors tested the prediction that introspecting about the reasons for one's preferences would reduce satisfaction with a consumer choice and found that introspection about reasons would reduce the satisfaction with consumer choice.
Abstract: This study tested the prediction that introspecting about the reasons for one's preferences would reduce satisfaction with a consumer choice Subjects evaluated two types of posters and then chose one to take home Those instructed to think about their reasons chose a different type of poster than control subjects and, when contacted 3 weeks later, were less satisfied with their choice When people think about reasons, they appear to focus on attributes of the stimulus that are easy to verbalize and seem like plausible reasons but may not be important causes of their initial evaluations When these attributes imply a new evaluation of the stimulus, people change their attitudes and base their choices on these new attitudes Over time, however, people's initial evaluation of the stimulus seems to return, and they come to regret choices based on the new attitudes
556Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the structure and interrelationships among multiple identities, the several functions that identities serve, the importance of context to the development and enactment of identities, and the need for longitudinal studies of identity change are discussed.
Abstract: As a concept with a tradition in both social and personality psychology, identity lends itself to a variety of interpretations. In the present analysis, identity refers to social categories in which an individual claims membership as well as the personal meaning associated with those categories. Four key issues for research are discussed: (a) the structure and interrelationships among multiple identities, (b) the several functions that identities serve, (c) the importance of context to the development and enactment of identities, and (d) the need for longitudinal studies of identity change.
445Â citations
TL;DR: This paper found that when the target's actions have few or no implications for the perceive's identity, out-group extremity will occur, whereas in-group members are responded to more extremely than ingroup members; others have found the reveres.
Abstract: Some researchers have found that out-group members are responded to more extremely than in-group members; others have found the reveres. The pre authors hypothesized that when importance of group membership was low, out-group extremity would be observed. That is, when the target's actions have few or no implications for the perceive's identity, out-group extremity will occur. In-group extremity was expected when perceivers are high in identification with the in-group. The presence of a threat to one's identity was predicted to intensity the in-group extremity effect for highly identified persons only Evaluations of a loyal or disloyal in-group or out-group member were made by highly identified or weakly identified in-group participants under threatening or nonthreatening conditions. The results confirmed the predicted pattern of effects. Implications for sports spectators and other self-selected group members are discussed.
336Â citations
TL;DR: A survey of expected performance in group brainstorming revealed that most individuals believed they would generate more ideas in groups than alone as mentioned in this paper, and individuals who, in a second experiment, actually performed in brainstorming groups also perceived their performance more favorably than individuals who brainstormed alone.
Abstract: Research has shown that individuals produce fewer ideas in interactive brainstorming groups than when brainstorming alone. However, group brainstorming remains a popular technique in organizations and industry. One basis for this popularity may be the perceived productivity of group brainstorming. A survey of expected performance in group brainstorming revealed that most individuals believed they would generate more ideas in groups than alone. Individuals who, in a second experiment, actually performed in brainstorming groups also perceived their performance more favorably than individuals who brainstormed alone. The results of a third experiment indicate that the illusion of group productivity may derive in part from the opportunity for social comparison that is available in group brainstorming. It also appears that individuals tend to take credit for a disproportionate amount of the brainstorming activity in groups.
277Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify individuals who believe that a particular trait (intelligence, personality, or moral character) is a fixed disposition (entity theorists) and contrast them with those who believe the trait to be a malleable quality (incremental theorists).
Abstract: In their research, the authors have identified individuals who believe that a particular trait (intelligence, personality, or moral character) is a fixed disposition (entity theorists) and have contrasted them with those who believe the trait to be a malleable quality (incremental theorists). Research shows that an entity theory consistently predicts (a) global dispositional inferences for self and other; even in the face of limited evidence, as well as (b) an over reliance on dispositional information in making other judgments and decisions. An incremental theory, by contrast, predicts inferences that are more specific, conditional, and provisional The implicit beliefs seem to represent not only different theories about the nature of traits but also different mental models about how personality works-what the units of analysis are and how they enter into causal relations. Implications for the literature on person perception are discussed.
275Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effects of threat to the self-evaluation on efforts to maintain a positive selfevaluation in individuals with varying levels of narcissism and found that more narcissistic individuals reacted to such a threat by rating the other more negatively than less narcissistic individuals.
Abstract: This study examined effects of threat to the sef on efforts to maintain a positive self-evaluation in individuals with varying levels of narcissism Male students (N= 216) with varying levels of narcissism, as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, were given feedback that they had been either slightly or substantially outperformed on an ego-relevant task Subjects completed personality ratings of the better-performing other believing that the other would or would not see the evaluation According to Tesser's self-evaluation maintenance model, one way to reduce threat from a better-performing other is to derogate the other More narcissistic individuals reacted to such a threat to self by rating the other more negatively than less narcissistic individuals However, in contrast to prediction, narcissists were somewhat less negative in public than in private Discussion centers on the utility of translating a psychoanalytic construct into social cognitive processes
273Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, it is proposed that the cognitive mechanisms underlying attachment styles are expectations about interaction with significant others, and that individuals of different attachment styles do have different expectations about likely patterns of interaction with a romantic partner in various interpersonal domains.
Abstract: It is proposed that the cognitive mechanisms underlying attachment styles are expectations about interaction with significant others. Two studies are described that assessed these relational schemata. The first study revealed that individuals of different attachment styles do have different expectations about likely patterns of interaction with a romantic partner in various interpersonal domains. The second study demonstrated the utility of the lexical decision task for examining interpersonal expectancies. When given a related context, secure subjects were quicker to identify words representing positive interpersonal outcomes, whereas insecure subjects were quicker to identify negative outcome words. Methodological and conceptual implications of a relational schema approach to attachment styles are discussed.
255Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the author illustrates how research in personality and social psychology can address problems that confront society, drawing on the 1992 presidential address to the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP).
Abstract: In this article, based on the 1992 presidential address to the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, the author illustrates how research in personality and social psychology can address problems that confront society. To do so, he draws on a program of research on volunteerism. Every year; millions of people volunteer to devote much time and energy to helping others by volunteering, for example, to provide companionship to the elderly, tutoring to the illiterate, or health care to the sick. Guided by a functional approach to motivation, the author and his colleagues are engaged in a coordinated program of basic and applied investigations, conducted in the field and the laboratory, to examine personal and social motivations that give rise to the sustained, ongoing helping relationships of volunteerism. Then, applying lessons learned from building such bridges between basic research and practical problems, the author examines the practical and theoretical promises of a functionally orient approach ...
232Â citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article examined the influence of emotional attributions on the relevance of current feelings to judgments of personal satisfaction. But their results were limited to domains that were unrelated to the causes to which subjects attributed their feelings.
Abstract: This investigation examined the influence of emotional attributions on the relevance of current feelings to judgments of personal satisfaction. In the first three studies, subjects were led to make different attributions for their naturally occurring feelings and then asked to judge their personal satisfaction. Satisfaction was higher after situational and specific attributions than after general and self-referential attributions, but only in domains that were unrelated to the causes to which subjects attributed their feelings. Study 4 tested whether affective states such as emotions with clearly defined causes are less relevant to judgments of life satisfaction than more diffuse states such as moods. Satisfaction was elevated after a laboratory mood induction only when subjects were led to focus on their moods in ways characteristic of emotional states (by articulating specific causes and labels for their feelings). These studies illuminate the role of emotional attribution in judgments of personal satis...
TL;DR: The authors investigated whether perceivers' inferential goals alter this process, and found that social inference is more flexible than previously thought, and that the extent of social inference can be increased by cognitive rehearsal tasks.
Abstract: Previous research suggests that perceives estimate the cause of behavior by (a) identifying the behavior (b) inferring the actor's disposition from the behavior, and (c) correcting this inference for situational constraints. An experiment investigated whether perceivers' inferential goals alter this process. Perceivers viewed a silent videotape of an anxious interview. Some perceivers estimated the target's dispositional anxiety; others estimated the degree of anxiety provoked by the interview questions. Within these conditions, half simultaneously performed a cognitive rehearsal task. Of perceivers who estimated the target's dispositional anxiety, those who performed the rehearsal task inferred more dispositional anxiety. In contrast, of perceivers who estimated the anxiety provoked by the questions, those who performed the rehearsal task inferred less dispositional anxiety. These findings suggest that social inference is more flexible than previously thought.
TL;DR: In this article, three studies were conducted to examine the relevance of authoritarianism to contemporary social attitudes, with special emphasis on AIDS, drug use, and the environment, finding that those scoring higher on authoritarianism were more likely to endorse harsh, punitive sentiments and solutions to the problems of AIDS and drugs and less likely to support more egalitarian ones.
Abstract: Three studies were conducted to examine the relevance of authoritarianism to contemporary social attitudes, with special emphasis on AIDS, drug use, and the environment. In Studies 1 and 2, students scoring higher on authoritarianism (measured by Byrne's balanced F scale and Altemeyer's Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale, respectively) were more likely to endorse harsh, punitive sentiments and solutions to the problems of AIDS and drugs and less likely to endorse more egalitarian ones. These two issues are presumed to represent a threat to the "American way of life" and provide clear out-groups for authoritarian aggression. Regarding the environment, authoritarians express hostility toward the environmental movement, rather than toward polluters. In Study 3, authoritarianism was further related to attitudes on abortion, child abuse, homelessness, the space program, the trade deficit, political changes in the Soviet Union, and the purposes of colleges and universities. These results show that the concept of...
TL;DR: The authors investigated the self-categorization theory hypothesis that positive attitude among group members is depersonalized in terms of the group prototype and found that group liking was independent from interpersonal liking and was positively associated with perceptions of self and others.
Abstract: Two studies of mixed-sex interactive groups (N = 173) investigated the self-categorization theory hypothesis that positive attitude (liking) among group members is depersonalized in terms of the group prototype. Subjects ranked fellow members in terms of liking under conditions accentuating or diminishing group membership salience and rated the group's cohesiveness, described the group prototype, ranked fellow members and themselves on prototypically, and rated the subjective clarity of the prototype. In Study 2 they also ranked members in terms of interpersonal similarity to self. The results generally supported the hypotheses. Group liking was independent from interpersonal liking and was positively associated with perceptions of self and others that were depersonalized in terms of the group prototype and with perceptions of elevated group cohesiveness and a clear group prototype. Interpersonal attraction was unrelated or negatively related to these variables but was more strongly associate with percept...
TL;DR: This article showed that stereotypes affect judgments about targets in the presence of the same ambiguous individuating information that was open to multiple construals, but not in the same specific disambiguated construal of that information.
Abstract: When stereotypes affect judgment about individuals in the presence of individuating information, they may do so by affecting the construal of that information. Therefore stereotypes may affect judgment even if perceivers subsequently neglect the stereotypes or base rates and base their impressions only on these stereotype-driven construals of the individuating information. Two experiments showed that stereotypes affected judgments about targets in the presence of the same ambiguous individuating information that was open to multiple construals, but not in the presence of the same specific disambiguated construals of that information. A third experiment showed that the effects of stereotypes on target ratings in the presence of ambiguous individuating information were mediated by the construals of this information. Thus all subjects relied predominantly on the individuating information, but when it was ambiguous, it was construed differently, depending on the stereotype.
TL;DR: The role of suspicion in the dispositional inference process is examined in this paper, where it is found that suspicious perceivers are more active and thoughtful in conducting attributional analyses than nonsuspicious perceivers.
Abstract: The role of suspicion in the dispositional inference process is examined. Perceivers who are led to become suspicious of the motives underlying a target's behavior appear to engage in more active and thoughtful attributional analyses than nonsuspicious perceivers. Suspicious perceivers resist drawing inferences from a target's behavior that reflect the correspondence bias (or fundamental attribution error), and they consciously deliberate about questions of plausible causes and categorizations of the target's behavior They are, however, quite willing to make strong correspondent inferences about the target if they learn additional contextual information that renders alternative explanations for the target's behavior less plausible. Implications of these findings for current multiple-stage models of the dispositional inference process are discussed, and the need for these and other models to give more consideration to the social nature of social perception is asserted.
TL;DR: This article found that when challenged by information about the actual average behavior frequencies reported by their peers, subjects shifted their own self-views and reported engaging in these behaviors less frequently than controls did.
Abstract: People believe that they perform fewer health-threatening behaviors than their average peer Men such beliefs were challenged by information about the actual average behavior frequencies reported by their peers, subjects shifted their own self-views and reported engaging in these behaviors less frequently than controls did. Evidently, this biased reconstruction of their own past behavioral patterns was designed to permit subjects to maintain the belief that they were superior to their peers. This interpretation was strengthened by the finding that no shifts in self-reported behavioral frequencies occurred for subjects given inflated peer averages to which most subjects were able to view themselves as superior without biasing their self-ports.
TL;DR: This article investigated the structure of counterfactual thoughts (evaluations of past outcomes based on'might have been' alternatives) and found that subtractive structures (which delete elements to reconstruct reality) were more likely after success whereas additive structures (additional structures, which add new elements to re-construct reality) are more likely following failure, when the failure was framed by a history of past failures.
Abstract: The structure of counterfactual thoughts (evaluations of past outcomes based on 'might have been" alternatives) was investigated. Subjects read stories describing a student preparing for an exam, with the outcome (success vs. failure) and past record of the student (good vs. poor) manipulated. Subjects then 'undid" the outcome by altering (mutating) events that preceded it. Outcome valence significantly predicted the structure of counterfactual alternatives, such that subtractive structures (which delete elements to reconstruct reality) were more likely after success whereas additive structures (which add new elements to reconstruct reality) were more likely after failure. Additive structures were even more predominant when the failure was framed by a history of past failures. No main effect of outcome valence was found on the total number of counterfactual thoughts recorded. These findings point to the utility of differentiating counterfactuals on the basis of structural types.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the impact of a physical attractiveness contrast effect on self-evaluations and found that self-ratings of attractiveness by men and women exposed to highly attractive same-sex stimulus persons (negative contrast) were lower than those of peons not so exposed.
Abstract: Three studies examined the impact of a physical attractiveness contrast effect on self-evaluations. Self-ratings of attractiveness by men and women exposed to highly attractive same-sex stimulus persons (negative contrast) were lower than those of peons not so exposed; attractiveness self-ratings were enhanced by exposure to unattractive stimulus persons (positive contrast). Global self-esteem was not influenced by a negative contrast effect; however, an adverse affect was observed on a more specific assessment of social self-esteem based on interpersonal competence. Corresponding increases in public self-consciousness occurred. 77e positive contrast effect was associated with marginally increased social self-esteem but not with heightened public self-consciousness. The potential role of public self-consciousness in mediating the attractiveness contrast effect is considered
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that strong believers in a just world reported less group discontent than weak believers, while strong believers reported fewer behaviors of self-improvement and group-directed behaviors.
Abstract: Seventy working women completed a questionnaire that assessed their dissatisfaction with their own job situation (personal discontent), their dissatisfaction with the job situations of women as a group (group discontent), and the strength of their beliefs in a just world (BJW). One month later, they completed a questionnaire that measured behaviors potentially related to discontent, some involving self-improvement (self-directed behaviors) and others relating to collective action (group-directed behaviors). Strong believers in a just world reported less group discontent than weak believers. BJW predicted both self-directed and group-directed behaviors; strong believers reported fewer behaviors of both kinds than weak believers. Taken together, BJW, group discontent, and personal discontent accounted for 23% of the variance in self-directed behaviors (R = .48) and 26% of the variance in group-directed behaviors (R = .50). These data constitute the first evidence linking BJW to assertive actions.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors tested the hypothesis that group status of comparison other and direcion of compassion (upward vs. downward) interact to affect comparers' self-evaluations and affective reactions.
Abstract: This study tested the hypothesis that group status of comparison other (ingroup vs. outgroup) and direcion of compassion (upward vs. downward) interact to affect comparers' self-evaluations and affective reactions. As predicted, individuals who compared unfavorably with in-group members reported lower selfsteem and more depressed affect and made lower ability attributions than individuals who compared unfavorably with out-group members. Furthmore, those who compared unfavorably with out-group members reported levels of self-steem and depressed affect comparable to those who compared favorably with others. Group membership of comparison other did not moderate reactions to downward comparisons. Results are discussed in terms of the self-protective nature of social comparisons.
TL;DR: The authors examines research on dispositional attributions about children and its contribution to knowledge of both socialization and attribution processes. But their focus is on the relationship between parent-child and other relationships.
Abstract: This article examines research on dispositional attributions about children and its contribution to knowledge of both socialization and attribution processes. Because dispositional attributions reflect the interdependent behaviors that characterize parent-child and other relationships, they may depend as much on processes that regulate behavior as on processes that regulate inference. Attributions about children (partners) depend on the goals, dispositions, and social skills of parents (perceivers) because these systematically influence children's (partners) behavior Once formulated, adults' dispositional attributions influence (a) their reactions to children, and thus children's socialization experiences, and (b) children's views of themselves and how they should act. These effects may help explain culture and gender-specific socialization, normal and dysfunctional parenting, child effects on parent behavior, and the child's internalization of parents' values and views of the child.
TL;DR: The authors distinguishes four types of traits: capacities, morality traits, attitudes, and frequency-based traits, and describes a set of antecedents for the correction stage and divides correction into several interrelated operations: retrieval of attribution relevant information (usually situational information), a decision-making operation in which the relevance of situational factors is considered along with trait-behavior relations, and an adjustment operation.
Abstract: Perceivers hold implicit expectations about the range of behavior implied by any given trait. This article distinguishes among four types of traits: capacities, morality traits, attitudes, and frequency based traits. Each type is described as having a unique pattern of trait-behavior relations, and several of these patterns are shown to relate to dispositional inference. The place of trait behavior relations within a general model of dispositional inference is outlined. The model describes a set of antecedents for the correction stage and divides correction into several interrelated operations: retrieval of attribution-relevant information (usually situational information), a decision-making operation in which the relevance of situational factors is considered along with trait-behavior relations, and an adjustment operation.
TL;DR: This article found that when subjects were allowed to select a single, safe alternative, a significant, albeit descriptively smaller competitive effect remained, and that this effect is partly driven by group members' fear of being exploited by the outgroup.
Abstract: The authors have previously shown that intergroup interactions are dramatically more competitive than interindividual interactions and have termed this phenomenon a discontinuity effect. They believe that this effect is partly driven by group members' fear of being exploited by the out-group. Experiment 1 found that when subjects were allowed to select a single, safe alternative, a significant, albeit descriptively smaller competitive effect remained. Intergroup competiteness may also be driven by greed. Experiments 2 and 3 tested whether the group content is propitious for providing social support for totally self-interested acts. Trained role-players consistently suggested selecting either the cooperative or the competitive option in a prisoner's dilemma game; and groups received trial-by-trial feedback about the out-group's responding. The pattern of results is consistent with the assumption that, in the presence of a vulnerable opponent, group members tend to provide social support for immediate self-...
TL;DR: This article investigated whether positive emotion is differentially prescribed for men and women in self-and other-oriented contexts, and found that women are particularly required to express positive emotion toward others.
Abstract: This study investigated whether positive emotion is differentially prescribed for men and women in self-and other-oriented contexts. Subjects read a scene in which the main character either did or did not express positive emotion toward either the self or another person. After imagining themselves as the main character, subjects rated on a rewards/costs scale how others would respond to them if they had behaved as depicted. Females expected more rewards/fewer costs when positive emotion was expressed toward another person than when it was not, whereas expected rewards/costs did not differ when females expressed and did not express self-directed positive emotion. Males expected more rewards/fewer costs when positive emotion was expressed than when it was not expressed in both self-and other-oriented contexts. Findings indicate that norms for expression of positive emotion are gender differentiated in that women are particularly required to express positive emotion toward others.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the possibility that perceivers may also be guided by an intuitive version of the cognitive social conception of personality, and they examine when and how perceivers focus on th...
Abstract: In most research on personality inferences, it is assumed that perceivers are guided implicitly by the intuitive, lay counterpart of a global trait theory of personality. This article explores, in contrast, the possibility that perceivers may also be guided by an intuitive version of the cognitive social conception of personality. In this view, personality dispositions are reconceptualized in terms of cognitive social person variables (such as the individuals' stable expectations, goals, and values) whose behavioral manifestation is in the patterns of situation-behavior relations. Inferences about person variables then require information about characteristic patterns of person-situation interactions. Such information is conveyed by the individual's stable pattern of behavior variations over situations (person does A when X but B when 19-data that typically are available to perceivers in everyday life but seldom in research on personality inferences. The authors examine when and how perceivers focus on th...
TL;DR: In this article, a model of how people construct coherent representations of others is presented, which integrates work on knowledge representations with Kintsch's construction-integration model of discourse comprehension and Thagard's model of explanatory coherence.
Abstract: A model is presented of how people construct coherent representations of others. It integrates work on knowledge representations with Kintsch's construction-integration model of discourse comprehension and Thagard's model of explanatory coherence. A major claim is that parallel constraint satisfaction processes, fundamental to connectionist modeling, play a major role in the development of coherent representations. Several topics are examined: (a) the role of making goal inferences in trait inferences, (b) how people combine apparently inconsistent traits to arrive at a coherent impression, and (c) how this parallel process model can account for findings that have been given a serial interpretation in Trope's two-stage model of dispositional inference and Gilbert's work on cognitive busyness. It is argued that this model provides a more parsimonious but broader explanation for attributions than alternatives.
TL;DR: This paper found that the most common distinctions are evaluative connotation and visibility of the master status characteristic, and that those who are culturally stigmatized are far more differentiated than those who were culturally valued.
Abstract: Master status individuals are persons whose physical appearance, behavior, or life circumstance is statistically unusual and centrally defining. In three studies, undergraduates indicated the dissimilarity among various master status groups (e.g., amputees, musical prodigies, criminals, royalty) and then rated them on semantic differential scales (e.g., good-bad, safe-dangerous, alluring-repelling). Multidimensional scaling revealed that few dimensions are needed to distinguish among these marginal individuals. The most common distinctions are evaluative connotation and visibility of the master status characteristic. It was also found that, as a group, those who are culturally stigmatized are far more differentiated than those who are culturally valued.
TL;DR: This article examined self-presentation strategies in the personals ads of heterosexual and homosexual men and women and found that the interaction of gender and sexual orientation was often the best predictor of ad contents.
Abstract: This study examined self-presentation strategies in the personals ads of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Ads were coded for physical descriptors and offers of and appeals for attractiveness, financial security, expressiveness, instrumentality, sincerity, and sexual activities. The interaction of gender and sexual orientation was often the best predictor of ad contents. Specifically, (a) gay men emphasized physical characteristics most and lesbians least; (b) heterosexual women mentioned attractiveness more than lesbians did; (c) women solicited more expressive traits and offered more instrumental traits than men; (d) gay men mentioned sexuality more than other advertisers; and (e) heterosexuals were more likely than homosexuals to pursue long-term relationships and to mention sincerity and financial security. The advantages of using personals ads as a source of data about self-presentation, societal definitions of attractiveness, and changing social forces are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, Latent variables analysis was used to investigate the relationships among sex role orientation, self-esteem, and depression, and the results of a covariance structure analysis were consistent with two models of the role of selfesteem in the masculinity-depression relationship.
Abstract: Latent variables analysis was used to investigate the relationships among sex role orientation, self-esteem, and depression. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that masculinity, self-esteem, and depression were separate, but highly correlated, constructs and that femininity was independent of the other three constructs. A hierarchical CFA indicated that masculinity, self-esteem, and depression were components of a higher-order construct, identified as Factor IV (Negative Affectivity) of the 'Big Five"personality taxonomy. The results of a covariance structure analysis were consistent with two models of the role of self-esteem in the masculinity-depression relationship: self-esteem and masculinity as correlated predictors of depression and self-esteem as a mediator of the masculinity-depression relationship. Implications of these results for theory and research are discussed.