Showing papers in "Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal in 2016"

The theory of planned behaviour and intention of purchase sport team licensed merchandise

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to predict intentions to purchase sport team licensed merchandise (STLM) using the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Design/methodology/approach – Three constructs of the TPB such as attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) were used to predict purchase intention of STLM. In an effort to increase the level of prediction, additional elements – past behavior and role identity – were included. A total of 384 university students participated in the survey. Findings – The results indicated that attitude, subjective norms, and PBC accounted for 64 percent of the variance in purchase intention of STLM. Past behavior and role identity explained an additional 9.3 percent of the variance in purchase intentions. Past behavior was the strongest predictor of purchase intention. Originality/value – The results showed the efficacy of the TPB in predicting purchase intentions of STLM.

The impact of social networks in the development of a personal sports brand

Abstract: Purpose – Over the past two decades the subject and growth of social media has been exponential, along with its relevance to the sport marketing industry. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the strategic usage of social networking websites to develop the concept of a personal brand by international rugby union players. Design/methodology/approach – This study was embedded within an interpretivist paradigm that allowed the qualitative examination of the way international rugby players use social networking sites. The primary data collection method involved ten semi-structured interviews and was triangulated with secondary sources which involved visiting the three social networking sites utilised by all the players (Facebook, Twitter and Instagram). Findings – The research analysis revealed personal branding themes that can be classified according to the following mnemonic: personality, exposure, response, follow, endorse, consistent, and target audience (PERFECT). Research limitations/implications...

Service quality models in the context of the fitness industry

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the concept of perceived service quality in the fitness industry by considering the service-dominant logic (Vargo and Lusch, 2004) and examining existing service quality models in the context of sport and fitness. Design/methodology/approach – The paper critically reviews generic and industry-specific models of service quality in the fitness industry. The examination of the models is intended to identify the role that the perspective of customers and the dynamics of service co-creation play in these models. Findings – Consideration of the context in a particular industry plays an important role in the development of service quality models. If underestimated, it can result in a model being inadequate or having limited explanatory potential. The review shows that both generic and fitness industry-specific models have methodological and conceptual limitations. This requires researchers to consider developing new contextual models that acknowledge service as co-creation of experience/value between suppliers and customers; and the goal of this co-creation as fulfilment of customers’ aspirations. Such an approach brings a new light to the meaning of “a customer’s perspective” and emphasises the dynamics of service co-creation in the fitness industry. Practical implications – The study provides an agenda for future research to consider perceived service quality models from the customers’ perspective. It suggests researchers to take into account various factors of consumer behaviour (e.g. motivation) which are unique to sport and fitness services. Also, managers of fitness facilities need to revisit their tools for capturing customers’ perceptions and to update the areas included in customer satisfaction surveys. Originality/value – The paper provides an insight into the role of co-creation for service quality in fitness services. It contributes towards establishing revised relations between service quality in fitness and contextual industry-specific factors suggested by numerous studies previously.

Sponsorship networks: toward an innovative model

Abstract: Purpose Sponsorship rarely occurs in a one sponsor-one sponsee dyad (single sponsorship), yet a large portion of sponsorship research takes this perspective. The purpose of this paper is to propose a model that reflects the complexity and rich diversity inherent in the field. The sponsorship network model considers the plurality of stakeholders to a sponsorship and their potential relationships to each other. Design/methodology/approach This conceptual paper develops a theoretical and conceptual framework to better identify the effect of sponsorship networks on consumer behavior. Findings Based on a review of the multiple sponsorships literature, the authors propose an innovative theoretical framework and a set of research propositions. The model considers simultaneously the potential relations between sponsors, sponsees and ambushers at the cognitive, affective and conative levels. Originality/value This research emphasizes the managerial implications for stakeholders involved in sponsorship and ambush marketing actions in order to maximize their investment. The model provides a comprehensive understanding of the complex nature of sponsorship networks and their ability to influence consumer behaviors. These effects are more complex than is currently recognized.

The impacts of fans' sincerity perceptions and social media usage on attitude toward sponsor.

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute understanding of sponsorship by examining the impacts of team attachment, perceived fit, perceived sincerity and sport team focussed social media consumption on attitudes toward sponsor and intentions to purchase products of sponsor. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected through survey method. The questionnaires were completed by 310 fans in the arena before the beginning of a professional football game in Istanbul, Turkey. The hypothesized model was tested by using structural equation modeling. Findings – The results reveal that sport consumers who see a fit between the sponsor and sport team are more likely to believe that the sponsor’s motives are sincere and sincerity perceptions, in turn, positively influence attitudes toward sponsor and intentions to purchase sponsor’s products. The research also provides empirical evidence for the direct impacts of perceived fit and fans’ usage of social media for receiving team-related information on...

An explanation of economic impact: why positive impacts can exist for smaller sports

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand why some sports show a positive economic impact and other sports do not, and to identify a common set of explanatory factors explaining the differences. Design/methodology/approach – This explanatory research reviews the economic impact literature to identify the underlying conditions that would theoretically allow any sport, large or small, to generate positive economic effects. Findings – Nine conditions are identified that, when present, could allow a community to experience a positive economic impact from a team or stadium. These are then used to explain the discrepancy in known empirical outcomes in major and minor league baseball (MiLB). It appears as if major league teams are more likely to violate the conditions than minor league teams. This research finds theoretical support for previous suggestions that smaller teams and events may be beneficial to local economies. In doing so, it also explains previous empirical results that found some MiLB c...

If we build it, will they come? Examining the effect of expansion teams and soccer-specific stadiums on Major League Soccer attendance

Abstract: Purpose – Two of the primary growth strategies for Major League Soccer (MLS) have been team expansion and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship between these factors and game-specific MLS spectator attendance. Design/methodology/approach – Two multiple regression models, one using multi-level mixed effects linear regression and another using interval regression, were developed to explain the variation in attendance utilizing the two factors of interest along with other control factors that have been identified as attendance determinants in previous literature. Game-specific data were collected for five MLS seasons, 2007-2011. Findings – The two regression models explained approximately 40 percent of the variation in spectator attendance and the results showed that expansion teams and soccer-specific stadiums were significantly related to attendance. However, the effect of soccer-specific stadiums was minimized due to the extreme...

Sport-related branded entertainment: the Red Bull phenomenon

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce a conceptual model of branded entertainment into sport marketing and highlight Red Bull’s strategy as a “best practice”. Branded entertainment, the full integration of advertising into entertainment content, is an innovative marketing strategy that can provide sport enterprises and sponsors with consumer attention and engagement. Design/methodology/approach Branded entertainment was theoretically framed and conceptualised. Using an inductive approach Red Bull’s portfolio of self-generated action/extreme sport content as well as its production, distribution and viral processes were analysed. Findings A communication model of sport-related branded entertainment was developed to distinguish actors such as athletes, sponsors, and co-operating companies, traditional and new (sport) media as well as sport consumers and prosumers and analyse their actions and relationships. Research limitations/implications This study is limited to Red Bull’s branded entertainment activities. However, a thorough conceptualisation and analysis of branded entertainment and findings of unique characteristics and anomalies related to branded sport entertainment allows academics and professionals to understand and apply the concept. Practical implications The research theme triggers a dialogue and encourages marketing practitioners to consider alternative ways to engage their target audiences and expand their integrated communication strategies via a unique and dynamic promotional tool. Originality/value This paper contributes to the sport value framework by addressing “value co-creation” in a sport media and marketing context. By highlighting the Red Bull phenomenon as an innovative approach a successful integration of branding and sponsorship activities into sport entertainment content production, distribution and viral marketing is presented.

Organisational change in local sport clubs: the case of Flemish gymnastics clubs

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the quality assurance system IKGym (Quality Management System for Gymnastics Clubs), on professionalisation, homogenisation and organisational performance in a sample of gymnastics clubs affiliated to the Flemish Gymnastics Federation. Design/methodology/approach – Data were drawn from a sample of 55 non-profit local Flemish gymnastics clubs, evaluated twice by IKGym between 2004 and 2010. Using a longitudinal analysis of quantitative data of the IKGym data set a paired samples t-test was conducted to measure the impact of IKGym on the sample of gymnastics clubs. Besides, the Pitman-Morgan test was conducted to measure if the gymnastics clubs have become more isomorphic because of IKGym. Findings – First, the results identify different levels of progression towards professionalisation between various quality and performance targets of the gymnastics clubs and depending on the structural design types of these clubs. Second, it was found that d...

Ambush marketing in sports: an attack on sponsorship or innovative marketing?

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to comprehensively characterise the interdisciplinary phenomenon of ambush marketing in sports, structure its manifestations, illustrate the consequences associated with ambush marketing and provide a critical evaluation from an objective perspective. Design/methodology/approach Various approaches to the definition of ambush marketing are presented and the objectives pursued with ambush marketing are identified. In this paper a new approach has been developed to structure the strategies and manifestations of ambush marketing. Findings It is a fine line between creative marketing and infringing on sponsorship rights. So the interdisciplinary phenomenon ambush marketing is discussed controversially. Ambush marketing is situated at the intersection of two opposing spheres of interest conducting a battle for shares of the marketing potential of a sports event. On one side there is the disparaging view of ambush marketing founded on legal and/or ethical considerations. On the other, the author has the respectful assessment of ambushers characterised by their innovative, creative marketing. Practical implications The analysis conducted in this paper leads to the conclusion that a general evaluation or condemnation of ambush marketing is not feasible. A four-field matrix emerges from the combination of a legal-statutory consideration on one hand and an ethical-moral assessment on the other. Originality/value The paper describes and structures ambush marketing in a novel form and discusses illustrating examples from major sporting events. Ambush marketing is evaluated from a neutral perspective by summarising the opportunities and threats of ambush marketing which leads to a nuanced contemplation of ambush marketing.

Strategy, structure, and culture within the English Premier League: An examination of large clubs

Abstract: Purpose – Prior research has argued that business practices within English football clubs are amateurish and outdated due to the comparatively small size of clubs and the restrictive nature of the cartel-like industry they compete in. But is this true for large EPL clubs (i.e. those with high market valuation and large number of employees)? Do these clubs have the ability to pursue alternative business strategies, and if so, do their organizational structures, cultures, and behavioral norms support the strategic directions they have chosen to pursue? The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – This paper evaluates survey responses from 35 executives and business managers within three large EPL clubs. The study utilizes previously validated scales to examine issues of organizational structure, culture, and behavioral norms. Findings – Despite operating within a closed industry, large EPL clubs are not all pursuing identical business strategies. Consistent with contingency theory, ...

Football clubs’ profitability after the Financial Fair Play regulation: evidence from Italy

Abstract: Purpose In 2009, the Union of European Football Associations approved the Financial Fair Play (FFP) regulations. These regulations refer to the requirements of transparency and financial conditions for football clubs participating in European competitions. The purpose of this paper is to combine the managerial and the economic points-of-view in order to understand if Italian football clubs are ready to comply with the new FFP rules. Design/methodology/approach In the analysis, the authors focus on the main Italian football league, Serie A. Using business model analysis, the authors determine what the main profit determinants of football associations are, through panel data for 15 clubs from 2011-2013. The authors then try to match the statistical and managerial approach. Findings The results show that the key contributing factors to profits are on the costs side. In particular, the most relevant expenses are player wages. The core revenue for clubs comes from the net profit from player trading, while other income, such as TV rights, commercial and match-day proceeds, have no statistical significance for profit formation. Research limitations/implications The main limitation of the analysis is that the survey regarded only on Italian Championship. So it is deeply influenced by the competitive structure of the Italian league that is different from that of other European leagues. Therefore, the authors think that the future developments of this work could be the examination of another European Championship, for example, English Premier League, and the compared analysis of Italian league and other European one. Practical implications There is a close-link between costs and profitability, and especially between expenditure on players and the ability to close the financial year with a profit. Clubs must address the issue of player wages in order to follow a path of economic recovery towards profitability. Originality/value In the work the authors put together managerial point of view and economical one, in order to understand how FFP can impact on profitability of football clubs. The authors use an empirical econometrics model to test the hypothesis about business model of Italian Clubs.

The future of professional football: A Delphi-based perspective of German experts on probable versus surprising scenarios

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the future of professional soccer by 2025. Scientific foresight studies on this industry do not yet exist despite its current position at a crossroads: toward further exploitation of profit potential? Or clear commitment to the traditional European Model of Sport? Design/methodology/approach – The authors conducted a Delphi-based scenario study. In total, 62 high-level experts from sport, business, and society evaluated the probability of occurrence, impact, and desirability of 15 future projections over at least two rounds. The resulting 5,940 quantitative judgments and 670 qualitative comments were condensed into probable scenarios and surprising wildcards. Findings – Two probable scenarios for European professional soccer by 2025 exist: in an extrapolation scenario, clubs will reap long-term gains from fulfilling public demands regarding stadium security, competitive balance, and social engagement. The less likely alternative is an extensive commerciali...

Factors impacting the decision to attend soccer games: an exploratory study

Abstract: Purpose – As an exploratory study, the purpose of this paper is to examine the underlying motivations for attending soccer games. Design/methodology/approach – Attendees at two soccer games in Athens, Greece were surveyed about their frequency of attendance at soccer games and their attitudes toward soccer. In total, 252 people from five randomly selected sections of the stadiums participated in the survey. Findings – The results indicate that there are three major motivations – emotional excitement, socialization, and soccer atmospherics – and two identity salience factors – ardent soccer fans and rational soccer fans – for attending soccer games. The most important factor for attendance is being an ardent soccer fan closely followed by the emotional excitement factor. Among the demographic factors considered, only gender significantly affects soccer game attendance. Originality/value – In contrast to previous studies that are somewhat descriptive, this research explicitly introduces factors related to s...

Volunteers at biking race events

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the antecedents of volunteer commitment and intention to remain volunteering for the same event in the future, in the context of two annually held Norwegian cycling race events. Design/methodology/approach – A cross-sectional design was used, applying a questionnaire that was developed and distributed to the cycling events volunteers both in hard copies and as online format by QuestBack. Findings – The volunteers were motivated by egoistic, altruistic, connection to the sport, and external factors. They were highly committed and intended to remain as a volunteers in the future events. Older age; satisfaction from their own contribution and type of work, from recognition; and motivation as personal connections to the sport predicted commitment. Higher levels of education, commitment, and motivation by personal connections to the sport predicted intention to remain as a volunteer for future events. A factor-based structure of sport event volunteer satisfacti...

The impact of brand associations on brand loyalty in the football industry: A comparison of fans from developed and emerging football markets

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of brand associations on brand loyalty of fans toward professional football clubs in developed and emerging football markets (EFM). In particular, the following research questions are answered: how important are different determinants of brand associations for fans from developed football markets (DFM) and EFM? Are there any major differences in the importance of different brand associations and their influence on brand loyalty between fans from DFM and EFM? Design/methodology/approach Based on the customer-based brand equity framework the impact of brand associations on brand loyalty is tested with a sample of 3,587 fans from DFM – Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and France (2,032) – as well as fans from EFM – Brazil, Russia, India, China, and the USA (1,555). Findings Structural equation modeling is applied and shows a negative impact of brand attributes on attitudinal loyalty, whereas brand benefits positively impact attitudinal loyalty. Furthermore, significant differences between fans from developed and EFM are revealed. Implications for the management of football teams and for research on brand management are derived. Originality/value This study extends the work of Gladden and Funk (2001) by expanding the model used to assess brand loyalty and analyzes it empirically in different football markets. When looking to foster attitudinal loyalty, marketers should concentrate on benefit associations instead of attribute associations. Most importantly, marketers should be aware that when focusing on developing brand loyalty amongst EFM fans, they should not simply apply the same strategies that proved to be effective in DFM and vice versa.

Psychosocial benefits from participating in an adventure expedition race

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify psychosocial benefits that the race participants gained from participating in an adventure race (AR). The sample studied were participants of the Patagonian Expedition Race (PER), a multi-day AR that takes place in Chilean Patagonia. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected in the 2012 prior to, during, and after the event. Observations and semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven four-member teams. Video material and open-ended questionnaires from 2010 to 2012 editions of the event were analysed for validating the findings from the 2012 race study. Interview and observation data were analysed in four steps, including preparation phase (transcription of interviews), exploration phase (searching for themes), reduction phase, and interpretation. Notes from observations and other sources were added to the data during phase 2. Findings Six different types of psychosocial benefits of the PER participants emerged from the data analysis: the “flow” experience including immersion into the nature; the play state and changes between telic and para-telic meta-motivational states; exploration and tourist aspects; the creation of “communitas”, friendships, trust, and other social aspects; felt self-change; and the transferability of the benefits acquired to daily life. Research limitations/implications The conclusions are limited by the sample size and the case study design. Hence, the study should be repeated in other adventure and expedition race settings and contrasted to studies in shorter ARs as well as in other types of small team sports. Practical implications The ARs gives opportunities for unique experiences of coping with nature in extreme conditions, thus developing personal insight and outdoor survival skills. The skills and personal development were applicable to everyday life. Moreover, similar races may be organized in different settings to provide varied options for athletes to participate in such races. Social implications The benefits gained by the participants are considered useful for coping with demands in working life. This applied especially to enhanced self-insights, attitudes towards hindrances and obstacles, and teamwork skills. The race might be used as parts of training for leaders in organizations of all kinds. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first research paper applying the concept of psychosocial benefits when exploring the outcomes that athletes gain from their AR participation.

Decision-making processes in football clubs associated with an external advisory programme

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to foster a better understanding of how decision-making processes work in sport clubs and to develop appropriate advisory concepts or management tools in order to successfully realize structural changes in sport clubs. This paper examines the decision-making processes associated with an external advisory programme. Based on the assumption of bounded rationality, the garbage can model is used to grasp these decision-making processes theoretically and to access them empirically. Design/methodology/approach Based on a case study framework, an in-depth analysis of the decision-making and implementation processes involved in an advisory programme was performed in ten selected football clubs. Guided interviews were conducted on the basis of the four streams of the garbage can model. The interviews were analysed with qualitative content analysis. Findings Results show that three types of club can be distinguished in terms of their implementation processes: low implementation of the external input; partial implementation of the external input; and rigorous implementation of the external input. In addition, the analysis shows that the participants in the advisory programme are the key actors in both the decision-making process and the implementation. Originality/value The paper provides insights into the practicability of advisory programmes for sport clubs and the transfer to the clubs’ practical decision-making routines. Additionally, it shows how sport clubs deal with (external) advisory impulses, and which different decision-making practices underlie these processes.

Managing celebrity via impression management on social network sites: An exploratory study of NBA celebrity athletes

Abstract: Purpose Central to the celebrity creation process is mass media communication and impression management (IM) behaviors of social actors. The emergence of social network sites (SNSs) such as Twitter offers a platform for social actors to engage both of these means in efforts to manage their celebrity. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of how celebrity athletes manage their celebrity status by investigating IM tactics employed by National Basketball Association (NBA) celebrities on Twitter. Design/methodology/approach A content analytic design was employed to examine the Twitter posts of the top ten most popular and influential NBA celebrity athletes (past and present) at the time of tweet acquisition. Findings The findings revealed the celebrity athletes used a variety of IM tactics to manage their celebrity. Defensive IM tactics (i.e. reactive measures taken) were used sparingly when compared to offensive IM tactics (i.e. proactive measures taken). Also, consistent with extant IM literature, the celebrity athletes utilized IM tactics in isolation as well as in combination. Practical implications The extant literature suggests that celebrities cultivate their relationships with the various media outlets with the potential to create (or even damage) one’s celebrity. This study offers celebrity athletes and their managers with useful insight on celebrity management. Originality/value This study is the first to examine IM in a sport business context, particularly the use of IM of athletes on SNSs.

Segmenting the collegiate football game spectator: a cluster analysis approach

Abstract: Purpose – The purposes of this paper is to segment spectators of collegiate football game using a cluster analysis and to determine differences between spectator clusters based on motivations, satisfaction, and demographic characteristics. Design/methodology/approach – A survey instrument was utilized, and a total of 407 usable data were gathered through a convenience sampling method at a main campus in the Southern USA. A discriminant analysis was employed to create cluster profiles including demographic variables not previously included in the clustering procedure. Cluster analysis is a procedure used to determine best group segmentation. Findings – Through a factor-cluster analysis, two distinct groups are identified as attendees of collegiate football games: far-away fans and seasoned sideliners. Knowing the different spectators in event attendance allows marketers of collegiate sport events to effectively target segments and attract larger numbers of visitors to each event. Although the results indic...

Brand community, loyalty and promise in myfootballclub.co.uk

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to link the notions of brand community, loyalty and promise as a reminder to marketers of the importance to brands of keeping their commercial promises to brand community members. Design/methodology/approach – The paper reports on a questionnaire survey (n=500) of members of a sport brand community as part of an investigation into the relationship between brand community and brand loyalty. Findings – Brand loyalty was predicted by age, frequency of attendance, motivations for joining the brand community and the degree to which expectations built by the brand promise are met. Research limitations/implications – In common with many inquiries in the area of brand community, this is a single case study. It is primarily a cross-sectional study, with a minor longitudinal element. Practical implications – Branding practitioners and consultants with responsibility for brand community management issues need to balance the consumer-to-consumer dimensions of community with a ca...

Community sport and the newcomer experience in small cities

Abstract: Purpose – This research reports on work related to integrating new immigrants into their local communities. The purpose of this paper is to explore community sport and the newcomer experience in communities through an acculturation framework. Design/methodology/approach – The role of community sport organizations in the acculturation process is explored empirically via a three-stage research study of a small Canadian city that includes interviews with local newcomers, interviews with managers of local community sport organizations, and a website content analysis of community sport organizations in the region. Findings – Results outline a number of important constraints, practices and realities facing newcomers and community sport organizations in improving participation rates and integration. In addition, the use of the acculturation frame provides insight on the perceived value of community sport yet low participation rates among newcomers. Practical implications – There is a need for community sport pro...

All together now? Exploring sales and marketing integration

Abstract: Purpose – Building on prior research in interactions between sales and marketing departments, the purpose of this paper is to investigate departmental alignment among professional hockey teams. By using a single industry sample, the authors are able to identify high and low performers, along with structural antecedents that lead to higher alignment (Rouse and Daellenbach, 1999). Expiring inventory, customer knowledge, and volatile demand enhance the need for alignment and suggest opportunities for innovative mechanisms to share information among departments (Mullin et al., 2007). Design/methodology/approach – Through the usage of Kotler et al.’s (2006) survey instrument, the authors survey NHL Vice Presidents of sales and marketing to assess levels of structural alignment. The authors further explores strategies for alignment through qualitative interviews of select team executives. Findings – The authors find examples of high alignment, achieved through structural elements of proximity, cross-functional ...

It’s not just cricket – the portfolios of the English/Welsh cricket teams

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the range of products and services offered by the professional cricket teams in the UK. To what extent have they added to their core activity of staging matches? Design/methodology/approach – A case study approach was adopted using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The accounts of the 18 teams and the governing body were reviewed to analyse the flow of income within the sport and categorize its sources. Interviews were then held with senior commercial staff of 12 of the teams. Findings – All of the teams had engaged in brand extensions, offering a category of products/services that were more concerned with facilities utilization. These were not aimed at fans of the teams, as with conventional sporting extensions, but at a different market. Though there was some overlap between customers. The use of alliances and joint ventures was common in the provision of these lines. Research limitations/implications – The research is limited to a single sport,...

How industry competition ruined windsurfing

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate a competitive evolutionary process we call “innovation overshooting” that has been observed in equipment-based sports, using windsurfing as a case study. Design/methodology/approach The case-study approach is based upon primary data gathered through semi-structured, in-depth interviews with pioneers of the case-study sport and through analysis of international and domestic industry publications and grey literature. Findings New sports, in particular equipment-based “lifestyle” sports, can experience a rapid rise in popularity but eventually technology-driven competition leads to equipment overshooting the capabilities and financial budgets of most users. This Schumpeterian market process leads to a rapid decline in participation and the eventual collapse of the market for the sport’s equipment. Originality/value Models of endogenous overshooting are established in the study of finance and business cycles, and have recently been extended to the music and design industry. The authors extend this to the sports equipment sector finding clear evidence of evolutionary competitive technological and market overshooting.

Professional football clubs retail branding strategies

Abstract: Purpose While some football clubs are recognised as popular brands, little is known about the way they leverage their brand in their merchandise retailing. To address this gap the purpose of this paper is to investigate retail branding strategies used by professional football clubs through brand equity and supply chain management. In particular, it analyses the type of product merchandised, the reasons for selling certain products and the ways through which football clubs merchandise, including their partners in distribution channels. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative approach was undertaken involving content analysis of 22 Scottish professional football clubs’ websites and annual reports, and semi-structured interviews with seven football clubs retail managers and four supply chain partners. Transcribed data were coded and thematically organised through an inductive process using the qualitative data analysis software NVivo 10. Findings Three types of merchandise have been identified: basic, fashion and short season. Building brand equity is considered the main motive for retailing merchandise. Some football clubs use intermediaries or outsourcers to respond to sudden consumer demands and to ensure high levels of service, whereas others have an integrated supply chain which allows for greater control. Research limitations/implications This paper contributes to the discussion on the role of retailing in football club brand equity. It suggests initiating intermediaries in the distribution channels to build brand equity thus enabling clubs to become more responsive to consumer demand. Originality/value This is the first paper to look at retail branding strategies of professional football clubs.

The tragedy of the waves

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship between the number of waves a surfer will catch, the surfer’s characteristics, and the surf conditions; and utilize this relationship to explain wave allocation strategies chosen by surfers. Design/methodology/approach – The study employed a discrete event simulation to model surfers at a well-known surf break in Southern California. Several experimental designs were implemented in the simulation to measure the effect of a surfer’s characteristics and surf conditions on waves caught; and compare different wave allocation strategies. Findings – The number of waves that a surfer will catch is largely dependent upon the surfer’s skill level and the wave allocation strategy used at the surf break. Common wave allocation strategies fail with large crowds. Originality/value – This study is the first to model the entire lineup at a surf break, providing quantitative insights into why surfers choose different wave allocation strategies.

Antecedents and consequences of sponsor-stadium fit: Empirical evidence from a non-historic stadium context in Japan

Abstract: Purpose Integrating several streams of theoretical reasoning such as social identity theory, congruity theory and the customer gratitude approach, the purpose of this paper is to develop a model of the antecedents and consequences of sponsor-stadium fit and examine the hypothesised relationships. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from professional football spectators in a non-historic stadium context (n=342). Through a confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling, the authors assessed the antecedents and consequences of sponsor-stadium fit. Findings Based on the results, team identification and prior sponsor attitude were found to be the dominant factors in enhancing sponsor-stadium fit. Furthermore, the indirect effects of team identification on purchase intentions through sponsor-stadium fit and gratitude towards the sponsor were positive and significant. Research limitations/implications When renaming non-historic stadiums of relatively new sport teams, sponsors that present a team-related brand identity can create a preference and image fit with stadiums. The findings serve to advance the literature on stadium sponsorship particularly at non-historic stadiums. Originality/value In its conceptualisation of sponsor-stadium fit, the current study extends previous research that has focused primarily on sponsor-event fit.

The role of sport science in the elite football labour process

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the elective affinity between sport science and elite football by situating it first, within the wider political economy of football and second, within the dynamics of the market and work situation faced by elite players in the modern game. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology underpinning this paper continues this movement by considering the impact on market and work situation of elite footballers due to wider social structures and the distribution of social power peculiar to the football industry. It is premised on the view that observed events and contingent relations and processes are linked to more enduring social structures and that knowledge must take account of all three. Findings – The resulting impact of sport science on elite football is contradictory, facilitating, on the one hand, the development of football as an aesthetic experience, while on the other hand, threatening to transform the football spectacle into a mundane exercise in ...