Showing papers in "The Modern Language Journal in 1999"

Foreign Language Reading Anxiety

Abstract: Whereas most discussions of foreign language (FL) anxiety have centered on the difficulties caused by anxiety with respect to oral performance, this article discusses the possibility of anxiety in response to foreign or second language reading. It introduces the construct of FL reading anxiety, offers a scale for its measurement, and reports on a preliminary study of reading anxiety in 30 intact first-semester classes of Spanish, Russian, and Japanese. The study found that contrary to previous teacher intuitions, reading in a FL can be anxiety provoking to some students. Whereas general FL anxiety has been found to be independent of target language, levels of reading anxiety were found to vary by target language and seem to be related to the specific writing systems. In addition, students’ reading anxiety levels increased with their perceptions of the difficulty of reading in their FL, and their grades decreased in conjunction with their levels of reading anxiety and general FL anxiety.

Perceptions of Teachers’ Communicative Style and Students’ Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Abstract: This study considers how students’ perceptions of their teachers’ communicative style, particularly the extent to which teachers are perceived to support students’ autonomy and to provide useful feedback about students’ learning progress, are related to students’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivational orientations. It also examines the link between these variables and various language learning outcomes, including effort, anxiety, and language competence. Students registered in a summer French immersion course (N = 78) completed a questionnaire that was used to assess the constructs described above. Correlational analyses determined that stronger feelings of intrinsic motivation were related to positive language learning outcomes, including greater motivational intensity, greater self-evaluations of competence, and a reduction in anxiety. Moreover, perceptions of the teacher’s communicative style were related to intrinsic motivation, such that the more controlling and the less informative students perceived the teacher to be, the lower students’ intrinsic motivation was. The implications of perceptions of teacher communicative style for motivation and language learning outcomes are discussed.

Socio-Cognitive Functions of L1 Collaborative Interaction in the L2 Classroom

Abstract: This paper studies the use of L1 in the collaborative interaction of adult learners of Spanish who are native speakers of English. Viewed as a psychological tool that mediates human mental activity on the external (interpsychological) and the internal (intrapsychological) planes, L1 use is found to serve a critical function in students' attempts to mutually define various elements of their task, that is, to establish and maintain intersubjectivity (Rommetveit, 1985). Also, L1 is shown to be an indispensable device for students in providing each other with scaffolded help (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Finally, this study provides evidence of the use of L1 for the purpose of externalizing one's inner speech (Vygotsky, 1986) throughout the task as a means of regulating one's own mental activity. The analysis of student interaction presented here not only highlights these critical functions of L1 in the second language learning process, but attempts to show how various communicative moves and linguistic forms achieve these functions.

The Discourse of a Learner-Centered Classroom: Sociocultural Perspectives on Teacher-Learner Interaction in the Second-Language Classroom

Abstract: This study investigates learner-centered and teacher-centered discourse in interactive exchanges between teachers and learners in the second language (L2) classroom. The analysis of interaction shows that learner-centered discourse provides opportunities for negotiation (of form, content, and classroom rules of behavior), which creates an environment favorable to L2 learning. In contrast, teacher-centered discourse is shown to provide rare opportunities for negotiation. Placing the analysis within the context of the role of discourse in the mediation of cognitive development, a central point in sociocultural theory, this study demonstrates that when learners are engaged in negotiation, language is used to serve the functions of scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) and to provide effective assistance as learners progress in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). The analysis presented here attempts to show how various communicative moves and linguistic forms are deployed to achieve these functions.

What's the Subject of Study Abroad?: Race, Gender, and "Living Culture"

Abstract: Based on an ethnographic study that focused on the relations of students’ in- and out-of-class cultural learning during a 5-week study abroad program in Spain, this article analyzes processes of teaching and learning in a Spanish culture and civilization class, the experiences of the only African-American student on the program, and students’ responses to a class meeting in which race was overtly problematized. In contrast to the shared construction of cultural knowledge that characterized the class, discussion of race and gender was limited in its complexity, despite signs of new understandings among students. Given a need for all students to gain multiple cultural perspectives and growing evidence that peer groups constitute sources of identity and cross-cultural understanding for students abroad, we suggest that study abroad curricula incorporate sustained discussion of students’ sociocultural differences and resulting particularities in their experiences in the host culture as part of the formal curriculum.

Children's Learning Strategies in Language Immersion Classrooms

Abstract: This article reports on an investigation of learning strategy applications in elementary French, Japanese, and Spanish immersion classrooms. The focus of this article is on identifying strategies that more and less effective learners use for classroom reading and writing tasks in the target language. Think-aloud data from 3rd-grade and 4th-grade students were quantified and compared through matched-pairs t-tests. Although there were no differences in total strategies used by high-rated and low-rated students, there were some differences in the types of strategies students relied on when reading. Low students used a greater proportion of phonetic decoding than did high students. High students used a greater proportion of background-knowledge strategies (including inferences, predictions, and elaborations) than did low students. Potential differences in the quality and flexibility of students' strategy use are explored.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): Practical Understandings

Abstract: The aim of this article is to report on a study that documented the views and practices of communicative language teaching (CLT) by Japanese second language inservice teachers. Compared to theoretical developments of CLT (e.g., see Savignon, 1991), little is known about what second language teachers actually understand by CLT and how they implement CLT in classrooms. Using multiple data sources including interviews, observations, and surveys, the article reports how teachers defined CLT and implemented it in their classrooms. The study identified how teachers actually dealt with CLT in their classrooms teaching Japanese. It is interesting to note that their views and actions dealt little with the academic literature pertaining to CLT or their education (be it preservice or inservice) in learning about CLT. Instead, teachers resorted to their personal ideas and experiences, solidifying their notions of foreign language (L2) teaching in further pursuing their evolving conceptions of CLT.

Instruction, First Language Influence, and Developmental Readiness in Second Language Acquisition.

Abstract: The researchers pretested 150 francophone children (age 11–12 years) with a variety of measures (including oral production, a preference task, and scrambled questions) designed to probe their knowledge and use of English questions. Each child’s developmental stage (in terms of the stages of acquisition of English questions proposed by Pienemann, Johnston, & Brindley, 1988) was determined. In oral production, most students were at stage 2 of the 5-stage sequence. Over the next 2 weeks, they participated in classroom activities that exposed them to hundreds of English questions, mostly consistent with stage 4 and stage 5. These focussed activities were guided by their regular classroom teachers and integrated into the communicative activities that were typical of their English as a second language (ESL) program. The focussed activities accounted for about 1 hour out of a 4- or 5-hour day in these intensive ESL classes. Following this intervention, the children were posttested, using essentially the same measures used on the pretest. Contrary to the predictions of Pienemann’s (1985) teachability hypothesis, learners who were at stage 3 prior to the focussed activities did not progress more in their use of questions in the oral production task than students at stage 2 at the time of the pretest. However, on other tasks, there was evidence that all students had some knowledge of stage 4 and stage 5 questions. Further analysis showed that students tended to accept higher stage questions (with inversion of subject and verb) if the subjects were pronouns, but not if they were nouns. This pattern is consistent with that of French, their first language (L1). The study adds to the literature that shows an interaction between developmental sequences and L1 influence and also suggests that explicit instruction, including contrastive metalinguistic information, may be needed to help students move beyond apparently stable interlanguage patterns.

Students' Developing Conceptions of Themselves as Language Learners

Abstract: This article describes a small-scale study into learners’ attributions for success and failure in learning French The study investigated the way in which learners conceptualise the notion of doing well, together with their perceived reasons for their successes and failures Interviews were conducted with students from 10 to 15 years of age who were learning French in the Southwest of England The results indicated that most of these learners tended to judge their success by external factors such as teacher approval, marks, or grades, and that the range of attributions increased with age Many of the attributions mentioned, however, were superficial in nature It appears that the teacher plays a significant role in the development of students’ attributions Implications are drawn with regard to language teaching and to the nature of the learning environment

Investigating Experienced ESL Teachers' Pedagogical Knowledge

Abstract: This study investigated the hypothesis that it is possible to access the pattern of knowledge about teaching and learning (pedagogical knowledge) that experienced teachers utilize while they teach. This hypothesis was investigated through qualitative and quantitative analyses of verbal protocols obtained from teachers who simultaneously watched videotaped segments of themselves teaching and reported on thoughts they had as they taught these segments. Two sets of experienced teachers (N = 7) uniformly reported 20 to 21 categories of pedagogical thoughts that they claimed were in their minds while teaching. Of these, 7 to 8 were reported more frequently than others. The lists of predominant categories for both sets are headed by thoughts concerned with managing both the language the students hear and the language they produce (Language Management). Thoughts about students (Knowledge of Students), thoughts about ensuring the smooth transition of activities in the classroom (Procedure Check), and assessing student participation in and progress with the classroom tasks (Progress Review) were also among those that featured highly on both sets of teachers’ predominance lists. In terms of an approach in analyzing the thought processes of ESL teachers, the study suggests that a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods may be profitable.

Students'' approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success

Abstract: Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning were surveyed in two distinct learning environments: one where English was studied as a second language (ESL), and another where it was a foreign language (EFL). A questionnaire, adapted from Sanaoui's (1992) work, was administered to 47 ESL and 43 EFL students. They were asked to indicate, among other things, the amount of time they usually spent on vocabulary learning, the extent to which they engaged in independent language study, the type of vocabulary learning activities they did on a regular basis, the frequency and elaborateness of their note-taking and reviewing efforts, and the frequency and elaborateness with which they used dictionaries. Whereas students in the two settings exhibited significant differences in the use of some of the strategies, other parts of their strategic behaviour were strikingly similar. Cluster analysis, a technique used for finding relatively homogeneous subgroups in a population, identified 8 different profiles of student approaches to lexical learning. Some clusters exhibited a remarkably “flat” profile in that they used either all or none of the strategies. The majority of learners, however, fell into the more saw-toothed profile clusters, exhibiting clear preferences for certain types of strategic behaviour. Analyses were also conducted to determine a possible relationship between strategy use and achievement level. Students’ performance on two tests, a Yes/No test assessing knowledge of academic vocabulary and a cloze test assessing overall English proficiency, were compared for the clusters. More frequent and elaborate strategy use was associated with higher levels of achievement, whereas lack of self-reported effort on the students' part was linked to poor performance. Results also suggested thattimeand learnerindependencewere the two measures most closely related to success in vocabulary learning and higher overall English proficiency.

The Effect of Authentic Video on Communicative Competence

Abstract: Given that exposure to video programming has been shown to increase students' listening comprehension, the subsequent effects of that increase on communicative competence were studied in order to assess the impact of exposure to authentic video on the language acquisition process. Following their contact with an authentic Spanish-language telenovela, student viewers demonstrated a statistically significant increase over their counterparts in a control group not only in listening comprehension but also in the number of words they used in discourse and in two component parts of communicative competence, specifically, their confidence in generating output and the scope and breadth of their discourse. This study shows that authentic television programming is a valuable tool that provides high levels of input and results in improvements in students’ output.

Linguistic Simplification of SL Reading Material: Effective Instructional Practice?

Abstract: Linguistic simplification of authentic texts is a common practice in second language (SL) reading material but research results on whether it actually increases comprehension are inconsistent. This study examined the types of simplifications made to 4 authentic texts and investigated whether there were differences in recall scores based on whether students read simplified or authentic versions. Four different recall scoring methods were used to assess reading comprehension. Findings indicated that a high percentage of the modifications made were lexical in nature and that recall scores for the simplified texts were not superior to the authentic ones. Moreover, 1 scoring method in particular, scoring based on the number and weight of misunderstandings, led to significant insights into the relationship between text processing and reading comprehension.

Using L1 to Master L2: A Response to Antón and DiCamilla's ‘Socio-Cognitive Functions of L1 Collaborative Interaction in the L2 Classroom’

Abstract: L'A. se penche sur l'article de M. Anton & F. DiCamilla (CMLR, vol 54, n°3) et montre que son interet reside, d'une part, dans sa valorisation explicite de l'emploi de la L1 par des etudiants travaillant en collaboration sur des exercices d'ecriture en L2, et d'autre part, dans son emploi de la theorie socioculturelle de Vygotsky pour justifier cette approche. L'A. insiste ici sur le fait que, tout en exemplifiant la contribution importante de cette theorie dans le domaine de l'enseignement et de l'apprentissage des langues etrangeres, cet article etend la portee de l'application de la theorie, par la mise en valeur d'etudes dans lesquelles le langage est vu comme intermediaire a l'apprentissage des concepts sur le monde de l'experience, et contribue ainsi au developpement de la theorie elle-meme

Development of L2 Intraword Orthographic Sensitivity and Decoding Skills.

Abstract: This study examines orthographic sensitivity among adult second language (L2) learners with diverse first language (L1) backgrounds. The specific purposes are three-fold: (a) to determine whether there are differences among adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) with alphabetic and non-alphabetic L1 backgrounds in their intraword structural sensitivity, (b) to explore specific ways in which such sensitivity differs among L1 and L2 readers of English, and (c) to examine the extent to which the sensitivity affects decoding performance among ESL participants. The findings suggest that (a) L1 alphabetic experience promotes L2 intraword structural sensitivity; (b) ESL learners, regardless of their L1 backgrounds, are strongly inclined to use visual familiarity as a primary cue during orthographic processing; (c) the ability to detect orthographic constraint violations separates L2 from L1 readers; and (d) qualitative differences in L1 processing experience are directly associated with procedural variations in L2 decoding, but such variations do not always result in quantitative differences in decoding performance.

The Effectiveness of a Video‐Based Curriculum in Teaching Culture

Abstract: This study investigates whether students learn culture embedded in a video-based second language program. Beginning-level French students watched 10 videos as part of the curriculum. A pretest, administered prior to exposure to the videos, and a posttest, given at the end of the semester after exposure to the videos, assessed long-term gains in little "c" culture (practices) and big "C" culture (products). Also, postvideo viewing tests, administered immediately after each video, measured short-term retention of culture in that video. A questionnaire analyzed student perceptions of how well they learned about the foreign culture. From pre- to posttesting, results indicated significant gains in overall cultural knowledge. On the postvideo short-term retention tests, scores of little "c" items were significantly higher than scores of big "C" items. Students perceived that the videos contained more little "c" than big "C" and that they learned more little "c" information. Findings supported using video to teach culture.

The Relationship between Listening and Reading Rates of Japanese EFL Learners

Abstract: It has been claimed that the first language (L1) optimal listening rate (LR) is comparable to the reading rate (RR) of college students if the material is relatively easy (e.g., Hausfeld, 1981). However, it is questionable whether these two rates are comparable for second language (L2) learners who have not had the same amount of exposure to spoken English as L1 learners. This study seeks to find the answers to this question by establishing and examining the relationship between the LR and RR of 56 Japanese college students of English at different proficiency levels. Experimental results showed that optimal LRs and RRs are also similar among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. However, a majority of the less proficient learners in the study encountered considerable difficulty in listening comprehension. Consequently, it was difficult to estimate their optimal LRs. Important pedagogical implications for English teaching and learning are discussed.

The Social Environment of Second Language Listening: Does Status Play a Role in Comprehension?.

Abstract: Research in second language (L2) listening has focused on the factors involved in the process of listening and how variation in these factors affects comprehension. However, most of the research in listening has focused on the psycholinguistic dimension of listening. As a consequence, there has been very little research on the sociolinguistic dimension of listening, particularly status relationships. This article examines what is meant by the term “status” within the social relationship and gives a short synopsis of the research done so far on L2 listening factors. It is argued that because it has been shown that (a) the social relationship has an effect on language behavior, (b) the social relationship has an effect on conversational interaction, and (c) conversational interaction has an effect on listening comprehension, the social relationships in an interaction may have an effect on listening comprehension. Implications for theory building and the language classroom are suggested.

First- and Second-Language Reading Comprehension of Literary Texts.

Abstract: This study compared the English and French reading comprehension and inferencing skills of US college students enrolled in an introductory French literature course Participants each read two different texts—one in English and the other in French—by the same 18th-century author, recalled them in writing, and did a multiple-choice task on selected literary features, followed by a character analysis task In the first phase of data analysis, quantitative measures were used to examine the amount of text accurately recalled in first language (L1) versus second language (L2), the relationship between recall and inferencing scores, and the relative contribution of L2 proficiency scores and L1 scores to L2 scores Responses to the multiple-choice task were also examined across languages; those findings are also reported The results revealed more accurate recall of L1 than L2 texts, but L1 scores were found to be a significant predictor of L2 recall and of L2 multiple-choice scores No significant relationships were found between recall and multiple-choice scores, or between L2 proficiency and L2 recall scores Analyses revealed that L1 scores contributed more to L2 performance than did L2 proficiency Multiple-choice responses were more similar than different across languages It is therefore important for researchers and instructors to consider and assess the L1 reading skills and knowledge sources of students enrolled in foreign language literature courses

Multidimensional Project-Based Teaching in French Second Language (FSL): A Process-Product Case Study

Abstract: The study describes the pedagogical approaches of 4 Grade 9 core French teachers and compares students' results on tests of general French proficiency and achievement tests, based on the objectives of a multidimensional project-based instructional unit used by all 4 teachers during the time I observed them. The observation data suggest that the 4 teacher participants were implementing this new multidimensional project-based approach in very different ways in their core French classes. Two teachers were classified as multidimensional project-based and 2 as less-multidimensional. Students from the multidimensional project-based classes obtained higher test scores than those in the less-multidimensional classes on some components of the French proficiency and achievement tests. It was not possible to conclude with certainty that project-based multidimensional teaching was the single cause of superior test performance by the students from the multidimensional project-based classes. Student involvement in curriculum decisions, a dual form-meaning focus, and teachers' uses of French are discussed as possible confounding factors.

Assessing Grammatical and Textual Features in L2 Writing Samples: The Case of French as a Foreign Language

Abstract: This article investigates the relative importance of various grammatical and discourse features in the evaluation of second language (L2) writing samples produced by college students enrolled in beginning and intermediate French courses. Three native-speaking instructors of French rated 172 essays using a scale that was constructed by the researcher and based on theory and research from discourse analysis. The scale contained 4 areas of evaluation--morphology, syntax, cohesion, and coherence–encompassing a total of 35 language/textual features, in addition to a holistic judgment of overall quality. Among the findings are that (a) raters relied heavily on discourse features, especially those for cohesion, in judging the overall quality of an essay; and (b) the rating scale exhibits content validity and reliability, although refinement is still needed to achieve a desired construct validity. Future research should focus on discovering other elements involved in the rating practice through analytical delineations and validation procedures and on adapting the proposed rating instrument for large-scale assessment contexts.

Computer-Aided Writing in French as a Foreign Language: A Qualitative and Quantitative Look at the Process of Revision.

Abstract: Currently little documentation exists on the writing strategies and habits of foreign language (FL) writers. This study was designed to observe, as unobtrusively as possible, the revision strategies of 5 students of French enrolled in a 1-semester intensive intermediate college French course. The participants completed a two-part writing task with the aid of the software program Systeme-D (Noblitt, Sola, & Pet, 1987, 1992). Of considerable interest is the program’s keystroke tracking device, which records the lexical, grammatical, and thematic information that students access while writing. Analysis of the compositions, computer records, videotapes of writing sessions, and student responses to postwriting questionnaires provide a detailed picture of how and when the students revised in real time—with minimal impact on the writing process itself. Results showed that both the self-reported good writers and poor writers engaged in the process of revising and that, as expected, surface-level changes far outnumbered the changes to content. These findings suggest that linguistic concerns and lack of explicit instruction on revision and computer strategies impede the reviewing and reworking of texts.

Learning Disabilities and Foreign Languages: A Curriculum Approach to the Design of Inclusive Courses

Abstract: Most universities require 1 or 2 years of foreign language (FL) study in at least 1 program as part of their general education requirements, yet many students with learning disabilities (LDs) find it extremely difficult to complete traditional FL courses. In this paper I describe some of the salient characteristics of these learners and common pedagogical assumptions of FL faculty that may make it difficult for students with LDs to complete the FL general education requirement. I list specific strategies that, according to students with LDs that I have interviewed, address some of their needs as FL learners. I then propose a systems approach to instructional design that faculty teams could use to redesign beginning Spanish language classes in order to accommodate students with LDs. I conclude that faculty, with administrative support, can collaborate in the design of inclusive FL courses in which all students—both those with LDs and those without—can experience success.

Beliefs about Language Learning and Their Relationship to the Ability To Integrate Information from Word Parts and Context in Interpreting Novel Kanji Words.

Abstract: This study explores the relationship between the strategies second language learners use to interpret unfamiliar words in a target language, and their general epistemological beliefs (i.e., beliefs about the nature of knowledge) and beliefs specifically about language learning. More specifically, this study examines how learner beliefs are related to the ability to combine information from word parts and context in interpreting novel semantically semitransparent kanji compounds (i.e., words consisting of 2 or more Chinese characters). Forty-seven English-speaking learners of Japanese completed both a belief questionnaire and a 72-item multiple-choice kanji compounds test. Results indicate modest but statistically significant correlations between (a) belief in the simplicity of knowledge and a tendency to overrely on a single source of information, (b) avoidance of ambiguity and overreliance on kanji clues, and (c) perception of the difficulty of kanji learning and greater use of contextual clues. These findings suggest that language learners' word inference strategies at least partially reflect their beliefs about learning in general and language learning in particular.

Letting French Students Hear the Diverse Voices of Francophony

Abstract: This response to Jean-Marie Salien's editorial “Quebec French: Attitudes and Pedagogical Perspectives” (MLJ, 82, 1998, pp. 95–102) deals with linguistic variation—particularly as it exists in Quebec—and aims at familiarizing students of French as a foreign language in the U.S. with variation in that language. The article stresses how important it is for French teachers to have an accurate understanding of the French spoken in Quebec. A characterization of Quebec French should include the different varieties spoken, recognize sociolinguistic differences, and acknowledge the functional effectiveness of all varieties. To acquaint American learners of French with language variation, it is appropriate to expose them to the varieties that can be found in neighboring communities, such as Quebec. This exposure can begin early so that learners will be able to recognize local particularities and variation. The use of a “pedagogical norm” is advisable, however, in guiding the learners’ own usage, because attitudes toward linguistic variants can produce negative reactions to nonnative speaker use of these features.

Quebec French: A Canadian Response

Abstract: This article is written in response to Jean-Marie Salien's editorial, “Quebec French: Attitudes and Pedagogical Perspectives” MLJ, 82, 95–102. This article describes circumstances that have led to the general acceptance of Quebec French by teachers and students of French as a second language in Canada and corrects some of Salien's misconceptions, particularly with respect to joual. The article suggests effective ways of introducing American teachers of French and their students to Quebec French—either through traditional print materials, or through the audio and print resources of the World Wide Web.

Letting French Students Hear the Diverse Voices of Francophony [and] Quebec French: A Canadian Response.

Abstract: This response to Jean-Marie Salien's editorial “Quebec French: Attitudes and Pedagogical Perspectives” (MLJ, 82, 1998, pp. 95–102) deals with linguistic variation—particularly as it exists in Quebec—and aims at familiarizing students of French as a foreign language in the U.S. with variation in that language. The article stresses how important it is for French teachers to have an accurate understanding of the French spoken in Quebec. A characterization of Quebec French should include the different varieties spoken, recognize sociolinguistic differences, and acknowledge the functional effectiveness of all varieties. To acquaint American learners of French with language variation, it is appropriate to expose them to the varieties that can be found in neighboring communities, such as Quebec. This exposure can begin early so that learners will be able to recognize local particularities and variation. The use of a “pedagogical norm” is advisable, however, in guiding the learners’ own usage, because attitudes toward linguistic variants can produce negative reactions to nonnative speaker use of these features.