Showing papers in "Zoo Biology in 1983"
TL;DR: By aurally monitoring the animals' vocalizations it was found that the level of aggressive response between the participants of the interactions increased with the production and subsequent duration of burst-pulse sounds.
Abstract: A specific display observed during agonistic behavior among captive Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) was examined. The primary component of the display was an open-mouthed posture accompanied by violent vertical head motions and the emission of pulse-type vocalizations. Jaw-clap behavior produced during the display was quantified for use as an index of aggressive motivation. By aurally monitoring the animals' vocalizations it was found that the level of aggressive response between the participants of the interactions increased with the production and subsequent duration of burst-pulse sounds. The possibility of burstpulse sounds resulting in auditory or tactile discomfort when directed toward conspecifics is discussed.
103 citations
TL;DR: The electrostimulation of a 6-year-old gorilla led to an erection, but not to semen emission, and three female chimpanzees were inseminated with fresh or frozen semen, each of them within three different estrous cycles.
Abstract: Electroejaculation was performed in 3 chimpanzees, 1 pygmy chimpanzee, and 2 gorillas with an instrument that delivers a modified sine wave current with a frequency of 24 Hz. The current stimuli were applied by a rectal probe with longitudinal electrodes. The electrical parameters varied from 6 to 12 V and from 30 to 40 mA for response of erection and lay between 8 and 18 V and between 40 and 145 mA during semen emission. Eleven chimpanzee semen samples showed the following data (x ± SD): total volume 1.9 ± 1.3 ml, volume of the liquid fraction 0.3 ± 0.2 ml, spermatozoa per ejaculate 743 ± 376 × 106, sperm motility 52.7 ± 9.6%, morphologically abnormal spermatozoa 12.2 ± 7.5%. From an adult gorilla, three semen samples were collected, in each case without spermatozoa. The electrostimulation of a 6-year-old gorilla led to an erection, but not to semen emission. Three female chimpanzees were inseminated with fresh or frozen semen, each of them within three different estrous cycles. None of these inseminations led to a pregnancy.
24 citations
TL;DR: It was demonstrated that induction of ovulation and synchronization of estrus can be achieved in the three Oryx species with PMSG or FSH combined with prostaglandin treatment.
Abstract: The genus Oryx comprises one species already extinct in the wild and others that are rapidly disappearing. It is important to understand the reproductive physiology of these species in order to ensure their successful captive propagation.
It was determined behaviorally and hormonally that the scimitar-horned oryx's 21–22 d estrous cycle very closely resembled that of the domestic cow.
Four females of three species (Arabian, scimitar-horned, and fringe-eared oryx) were treated with prostaglandin (PG) and pregnant mares serum gonadotropin (PMSG) or follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). All animals responded to prostaglandin treatment with shortened cycles and behavioral estrus. Ovulation occurred in all females but only one responded to gonadotrophin treatment with a mild superovulation.
An embryo recovered from an Arabian oryx was frozen in liquid nitrogen for 6 months. Upon thawing, the normal-appearing morula was surgically transferred to a scimitar-horned oryx. The recipient failed to carry the embryo and returned to estrus within three weeks of the transfer.
It was demonstrated that induction of ovulation and synchronization of estrus can be achieved in the three Oryx species with PMSG or FSH combined with prostaglandin treatment.
24 citations
TL;DR: Vigorous captive management and propagation efforts must become increasingly important if several endangered crane species are to survive the continuing decline in wild populations and the ultimate goal is the restoration of suitable habitat and sustainable native populations.
Abstract: Some unique features of crane reproduction, management, and conservation are described. Because cranes are sexually monomorphic, sexing is difficult and must be accomplished using behavior, laparoscopy, cloacal examination, genetic techniques, or fecal steroid analysis. Although husbandry techniques for cranes are similar to those used with other nondomestic birds, a number of basic characteristics, such as extreme aggressiveness, imprinting by the crane chick on man, a delayed molt in the immature crane, delayed sexual maturity, and infertility, pose special problems for the propagator. Artificial insemination is a practical solution to crane infertility. Vigorous captive management and propagation efforts must become increasingly important if several endangered crane species are to survive the continuing decline in wild populations. The ultimate goal is the restoration of suitable habitat and sustainable native populations.
22 citations
TL;DR: The most powerful experimental designs in comparative behavior are those that concurrently examine environmental stressors, physiological status, and behavior.
Abstract: The study of behavior is a powerful tool in the captive management of wild animals. It can, if properly applied, provide insight into a wide variety of problems. The interpretation of behavioral observations requires a firm understanding and characterization of the environmental parameters that can induce the physiological state of stress through neurological means in the study subjects. These factors include, but are not limited to, territorial factors, including social and physical accommodations, photo factors, and acoustical factors. Proper interpretation of behavioral observations also requires a basic understanding of the biochemical and physiological impacts of neuroendocrine-mediated stress. These include alterations in an individual's ability to metabolize toxic substances, resist infections, and reproduce. Confounding effects of these alterations must be considered in the examination of behavioral data. The most powerful experimental designs in comparative behavior are those that concurrently examine environmental stressors, physiological status, and behavior.
22 citations
TL;DR: Responses to questionnaires sent to 20 institutions holding Lemur mongoz did not reveal which aspects of management or husbandry could account for reproductive failure in the captive population, but allowed some qualitative comparisons with data compiled for captive and wild animals.
Abstract: Responses to questionnaires sent to 20 institutions holding Lemur mongoz did not reveal which aspects of management or husbandry could account for reproductive failure in the captive population, but allowed some qualitative comparisons with data compiled for captive and wild animals. In general, reproduction has occurred initially among wild-caught specimens before tapering off, and rarely occurs in the captive F1 generation. Data compiled by the International Species Inventory System and the International Zoo Yearbook revealed an aging captive population with no recent reproduction. No aspect of group composition, activity patterns, seasonal light regime, reproductive cycles, or diet could be linked to the lack of reproduction; and among lemurs subjected to the same conditions, some were known to reproduce while others did not. Lack of knowledge about this species and the threat of extinction for both captive and wild populations make an investigation of reproductive biology imperative. Recommendations for a research program are given.
21 citations
TL;DR: By finding correlates to breeding success, informed decisions on whether to change partners after a certain period of time, how to group the cats, and the optimum strategy for a survival plan can be made.
Abstract: Eight adult pairs of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) were observed for one to three years in the months December through March to determine the species' social and reproductive characteristics in captivity. To statistically examine the occurrence of behaviors as a function of estrus, the observation weeks were divided into three time blocks: before estrus, estrus, and after estrus. Using percentage of scan samples as an estimate of time spent in various behaviors, 16 behaviors and combined behavior categories were examined for (1) behaviors that differentiated successfully from unsuccessfully breeding pairs, (2) sex differences in behavior, (3) significant correlations between pair members, and (4) behaviors that showed time block effects. The rationale for identifying a behavioral profile of successful breeders in snow leopards was to aid zoos in their captive management programs by increasing their knowledge of the social behavior of this species. By finding correlates to breeding success, informed decisions on whether to change partners after a certain period of time, how to group the cats, and the optimum strategy for a survival plan can be made.
20 citations
TL;DR: The outlook for continued breeding of great apes in captivity is bright, and efforts in the past few years to identify and alleviate potential causes for infertility and nonreproduction are beginning to yield good results.
Abstract: Increased concern for maintenance of endangered species in captivity has prompted increased interest in monitoring the fertility of captive animals This paper outlines methods for discrimination between lack of reproduction and infertility, and provides guidelines for identification of physiological causes of infertility The role of environment in infertility is discussed, and suggestions are made for correction of environmental deficiencies A brief review of the potential for infectious infertility is followed by an outline of appropriate treatments It appears that a primary cause of physiological infertility in the gorilla is spermatogenic arrest, and it also appears possible that this defect may be corrected by alterations in environment and management In summary, the outlook for continued breeding of great apes in captivity is bright, and efforts in the past few years to identify and alleviate potential causes for infertility and nonreproduction are beginning to yield good results
19 citations
TL;DR: A main difference between okapi and giraffe development centered around maternal motivation during the high contact (regressive) periods and the regressive periods became conflict periods in okapis, whereas in the giraffe, the mother initiated the periods.
Abstract: Observations on the behavioral development of two okapi calves and one giraffe calf were made at Brookfield Zoo. The following behaviors were monitored for 4 to 6 mo after birth; nursing duration and nursing attempts, mother-infant distance, bunting the mother's udder, lying, moving, maternal grooming, mother and infant autogrooming, object licking, tail chewing, and contact by others in the herd. Behaviors in both species showed oscillating patterns with high levels of mother-infant contact behaviors at 3–4 wk, 9–11 wk, and 14–15 wk in okapis. Giraffe infants showed similar oscillations with high periods of contact about 2–5 wk later than those in okapis. Other behaviors oscillated in concert with these, with specific correlations occurring between nursing behaviors and grooming behaviors.
A main difference between okapi and giraffe development centered around maternal motivation during the high contact (regressive) periods. In okapis, after 10–12 wk there was a low rate of nursing success, whereas in giraffes the percentage of success in nursing rose with later behavioral oscillations. The regressive periods became conflict periods in okapis, whereas in the giraffe, the mother initiated the periods. This difference was in accordance with the unique strategy of infant rearing in wild giraffes in which there is an extended “hider” period when older calves are left together in shaded areas with an adult sentry. Field studies also indicated probable oscillations of mother-infant contact and a prolonged period of the mother initiating contact with her calf.
15 citations
TL;DR: Cotton-tops took longer to produce young on initial pairing, had a longer birth interval, and showed a high incidence of suspected infanticide and parental neglect, which are thought to be largely responsible for the relatively low reproductive potential of the cotton-top in captivity.
Abstract: A colony experienced in the successful breeding of thecommon marmoset acquired 15 cotton-top tamarins for breeding purposes over a period of 2 yrs. Data are presented on the breeding of the cotton-top and compared with the breeding of the common marmoset. The tamarins did not breed as successfully as the common marmosets. There were several reasons for this: Cotton-tops took longer to produce young on initial pairing, had a longer birth interval, and showed a high incidence of suspected infanticide and parental neglect. These factors are thought to be largely responsible for the relatively low reproductive potential of the cotton-top in captivity.
15 citations
TL;DR: A Species Survival Plan (SSP) has been prepared and 50 institutions have agreed to participate and the goals of the SSP include management for longterm survival with retention of maximum genetic diversity.
Abstract: The status of the Siberian tiger in the wild is endangered. A captive propagation program has been initiated by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA). A Species Survival Plan (SSP) has been prepared and 50 institutions have agreed to participate. The goals of the SSP include management for longterm survival with retention of maximum genetic diversity.
TL;DR: Two new interpretations of the function of hiding behavior are offered: (1) if older calves exploit the inexperience of newborn calves by nursing from their mothers, then younger calves may benefit by hiding out of the view of other herd members, and (2) if newborns vacillate between arousal-increasing and arousal-reducing activities, then “hider” species may hide to attain arousal- reduction.
Abstract: The New York Zoological Society's captive-breeding program on St Catherine's Island, Georgia, includes a herd of sable antelope (Hippotragus niger). Two aspects of mother-infant interactions, nursing and hiding, are described herein. Three younger calves, up to 6 d of age, and three older calves, 8 to 50 d of age, were the subjects of focal-animal and continuous observations and instantaneous time-point samples. Two of the younger calves were born to multiparous cows. One cow was primiparous. Between the three calves, quantitative differences in nursing episodes were found in the mean duration (1.7–3.6 min), mean number per d (1.0–8.6 episodes), and mean total time per d (2.6–14.6 min). Despite these differences, all calves thrived. The multiparous cows exhibited a pattern described in captive and wild ungulates: approaching their calves prior to nursing before the calves emitted any response; and nursing their calves early and late in the day. The cows also exhibited nursing-time synchrony. Three instances of calves suckling younger calves' mothers are also described. Two new interpretations of the function of hiding behavior are offered: (1) If older calves exploit the inexperience of newborn calves by nursing from their mothers, then younger calves may benefit by hiding out of the view of other herd members. Hiding behavior may result from intercalf competition; and (2) if newborns vacillate between arousal-increasing and arousal-reducing activities, then “hider” species may hide to attain arousal-reduction.
TL;DR: Two adult male and three adult female agoutis have been reproducing at the Lincoln Park Zoo since 1978, and it is believed that they are likely to produce multiple offspring in captivity.
Abstract: Two adult male and three adult female agoutis have been reproducing at the Lincoln Park Zoo since 1978. Agoutis of the species D. punctata and D. fuliginosa are capable of breeding and producing offspring in every month of the year in captivity. The minimum interbirth interval of captive punctata is 127 days, and its gestation period is apparently less than 127 calendar days. In captivity, agoutis are likely to produce multiple offspring.
TL;DR: A brief review of successful artificial methods of breeding domestic species and how this may be applied to non-domestic ones is given in this article, including semen collection, semen freezing, induction of estrus, artificial insemination, embryo transfer including interspecies transfer and embryo surgery.
Abstract: The growing interest in many zoos, wildlife parks and game ranches in the captive breeding of wild species has brought about much interest and research in developing and testing artificial methods of breeding. Much of this work has been concentrated in endangered species. The author outlines the relevance and utilization of such techniques and reviews successful attempts in this area and elaborates on future potential ones. A brief review is given of successful artificial methods of breeding domestic species and how this may be applied to non-domestic ones. Areas that are covered are semen collection, semen freezing, induction of estrus, artificial insemination, embryo transfer including interspecies transfer and embryo surgery. It is acknowledged that it is highly unlikely that an artificial program could save a species from extinction but such methods could greatly assist a comprehensive natural breeding program.
TL;DR: A newborn orangutan was removed from her mother 55 h after birth because no nursing had been observed and was hand reared in a nursery for 3 d and then successfully reintroduced to her mother.
Abstract: A newborn orangutan was removed from her mother 55 h after birth because no nursing had been observed. She was hand reared in a nursery for 3 d and then successfully reintroduced to her mother. Several factors that may have contributed to the successful reintroduction are discussed.
TL;DR: The female was found to pace and locomote significantly more during estrous periods, and the male marked and urinated/defecated more than did the female during estrus.
Abstract: This study examined the behavior and activity of two captive sand cats at the Washington Park Zoo in Portland, Oregon. Sex differences in behavior were examined and the direction and frequency of social interactions were determined. An attempt was made to determine behavioral signs of estrus. A scan sampling data collection technique was used to find the percentage of time spent by each cat in each behavior. Simultaneously, the frequency of social behaviors was recorded. The cats spent the greatest percentage of their time pacing and resting; social interactions occurred very infrequently. The only significant sex difference in behavior was that the male marked and urinated/defecated more than did the female. Temporal distribution in the usage of the enclosure was examined. It was found that when one cat was active, the other tended to be inactive. No overt behavioral signs of estrus were evident other than the actual observance of copulation. However, the percentage of time spent in each behavior was examined when the female was assumed to be in estrus (days when copulation was observed) versus nonestrous periods. The female was found to pace and locomote significantly more during estrous periods.
TL;DR: Analysis of urinary hormone levels in parallel with behavioral studies is still to be tested as a practical method of gaining information on the puberty development of adolescent males and on the fertility status of adult males under zoo conditions.
Abstract: There as been no reproduction within the Hannover Zoo's gorilla group, although several adult females and a silverback male have been living together for a prolonged period Therefore, the sexual cycle of three adult females was examined by means of total urinary estrogen excretion, measurement of the urogenital cleft length, ovulation detection with the help of the Subhuman-Primate-Pregnancy Test (SPPT), measurement of basal body temperature, semiquantitative blood tests to detect menstruation, and observation of sexual behavior Fertility status of the silverback male was examined by means of behavioral observation, rectal probe ejaculation (RPE), and testicular biopsy Sexual cyclicity was demonstrable in two females, whereas the third had an irregular occurrence of estrogen peaks and her menstruation and sexual behavior did not show normal cyclicity The male's infertility was characterized by absence of any sexual behavior, azoospermia in repeated RPE, unsuccessful treatment with clomiphene, and atrophy of seminiferous tubules in the extirpated tissue
Several factors, such as vitamin E deficiency, humoral dysregulation, testicular hypoxy, and spermatogenic arrest, caused through stress due to inadequate shelter systems, are discussed hypothetically in regard to their possible etiological relevance with respect to infertility in this species
In many cases infertility in the gorilla male is presumably based on a polyfactoral etiology Analysis of urinary hormone levels in parallel with behavioral studies is still to be tested as a practical method of gaining information on the puberty development of adolescent males and on the fertility status of adult males under zoo conditions
TL;DR: Caribbean flamingos were observed during the 1981 breeding season at the Audubon Zoological Garden in New Orleans, Louisiana, causing the flock to nest three times, and one pair brooded a chick during the final nesting.
Abstract: Caribbean flamingos were observed during the 1981 breeding season at the Audubon Zoological Garden in New Orleans, Louisiana. Two floods occurred during the breeding season, causing the flock to nest three times. At each new nesting there was a significant decline in the number of birds laying eggs. One pair brooded a chick during the final nesting. Immediately after hatching, the female usually brooded while the male defended the nest area; however, over the three-day period that the chick remained on the nest, the male began to spend more time brooding and less time defending the nest area. Thus there appeared to be some division of labor in this flamingo pair.
TL;DR: The demographic history of 4 races or subspecies of leopard, Panthera pardus, was reviewed from international studbook records dating back to 1953 and it was found that captive leopards appear to live longer than their wild counterparts, although precise data on wild populations is not available.
Abstract: The demographic history of 4 races or subspecies of leopard, Panthera pardus, was reviewed from international studbook records dating back to 1953. The Chinese leopard has been the most common pedigree race maintained in captivity, a factor linked to the length of time (29 years) this subspecies has been in captivity. The relative youth of the wild-born founders also helped them to adjust to captivity as well as live long reproductive lives. Today, however, this race is suffering from the ill effects of inbreeding due to the small founder size. This condition appears to be correctable now that additional specimens have been located.
Persian leopards have a larger founder size than the former race, but some of their ancestors were older animals at the time of acquisition. Because of this, their potential fecundity was probably depressed from psychological problems related to adjustment and a shorter life span in captivity. Two founding females experienced pelvic deformities while young, and few of their cubs survived because they all had to be delivered via caesarian section. This procedure also shortened the reproductive life of the females involved because the owning zoos refrained from breeding the animals in the leopards' later years.
Captive leopards appear to live longer than their wild counterparts, although precise data on wild populations is not available. In captivity many reach 12–15 years old, and exceptional individuals of several races have lived 20 years. Most captive-born leopards begin breeding when they are 3 years old and continue until they are 8–10 years old. Reproduction in females usually ceases at 12–14 years, although males have a longer reproductive life, with several successfully breeding when 19–20 years old.
TL;DR: Results of rearing and breeding chimpanzees at the Primate Center TNO are presented and animals of 2 years or more that had been weaned within a month were more likely to show body rocking than animals weaned later.
Abstract: Results of rearing and breeding chimpanzees at the Primate Center TNO are presented. The colony was built up from 1964 to 1971 by the acquisition of mostly young chimpanzees; thereafter, it was increased by local breeding. The ages at which the animals became reproductive were between 6 and 11 years for the males and between 7 and 15 years for the females. Seventy-six percent of the pregnancies (N = 132) were carried to full term and 87% of these were live births. Fifty-five percent of the babies were nursed by their mothers for 2–10 months. The next pregnancy after an abortion occurred on the average after 7 months; after a carriage to term, this occurred after 11.9 months. The difference was not influenced by the duration of the weaning period. Animals of 2 years or more that had been weaned within a month were more likely to show body rocking than animals weaned later. Cases of disturbed social or reproductive behavior were rare; the first locally bred animals have become reproductively active. Copyright © 1983 Wiley-Liss, Inc., A Wiley Company
TL;DR: The different possibilities and methods of the process of collecting sperm, its conservation, and determining the time of ovulation are discussed, as well as the various insemination techniques and their usage under practical conditions in zoological gardens.
Abstract: A report is given on the problems and the procedure of artificial insemination in the bonobo (Pan paniscus). In addition, the different possibilities and methods of the process of collecting sperm, its conservation, and determining the time of ovulation are discussed, as well as the various insemination techniques and their usage under practical conditions in zoological gardens.
TL;DR: This keynote address was presented at the Conference on the Conservation of Endangered Species in Zoological Parks and Aquariums on April 18, 1982 at the National Aquarium in Baltimore and outlines future trends in the world's environment, resources, and population.
Abstract: This keynote address was presented at the Conference on the Conservation of Endangered Species in Zoological Parks and Aquariums on April 18, 1982 at the National Aquarium in Baltimore. It outlines 1) future trends in the world's environment, resources, and population; 2) factors affecting species decline; 3) reasons for preserving life forms; and 4) techniques, with emphasis on captive propagation, used to assist in species recovery.
TL;DR: The New York Zoological Society developed a captive-breeding program for South American condors, designed to produce techniques applicable to hand-rearing of either species of condor.
Abstract: Recognizing the decline of the South American Condor in some parts of its range and the highly endangered status of the California condor, the New York Zoological Society developed a captive-breeding program for South American condors. This program was designed to produce techniques applicable to hand-rearing of either species of condor. Once condors were successfully reared in captivity, it became imperative to develop techniques to ensure that captive-reared condor chicks could be released into the wild, could survive there, and could interact naturally with other wild condors. Captive-bred hand-reared condor chicks were taken to Northwestern Peru and successfully released into the wild.
TL;DR: Brown hyenas became more common in European and North American zoos from 1960 to 1975 and 75 young were born, but Survivalship of young was low and none have been reared in zoos outside of Africa since 1975.
Abstract: Brown hyenas became more common in European and North American zoos from 1960 to 1975 and 75 young were born. Survivalship of young was low (45%) and none have been reared in zoos outside of Africa since 1975. Captive females cease reproduction at an unusually early age, reducing the species' fecundity to the point where captive populations have decreased 41% between 1980 and 1983. It is likely that brown hyenas will disappear from captive collections in the near future.
TL;DR: Herpetological zoo research published in three journals between 1977 and 1981 was surveyed and just under three fourths of zoo papers involved behavioral research.
Abstract: Herpetological zoo research published in three journals between 1977 and 1981 was surveyed. Fifty-three of 1,084 published papers involved zoos. Research for 30 papers was conducted in zoos. Just under three fourths of zoo papers involved behavioral research. Sixteen zoos were involved in research in this survey.
TL;DR: A captive propagation manager, committed to the welfare of captive populations of exotic animals, must often make decisions that are risky to individual animals.
Abstract: A captive propagation manager, committed to the welfare of captive populations of exotic animals, must often make decisions that are risky to individual animals. Innovative decisions that place animals at risk are essential to the progress of captive propagation. Such decisions must be grounded thoroughly on peer consultation, the scientific and zoo literature, and where possible on original applied research targeted specifically to the procedure in question. The management of two closely spaced births in a gorilla group is provided as an example.
TL;DR: Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) was evaluated as a means of freeze-marketing ring-tailed lemurs, brown leMurs, and Parma wallabys and the marks appear to be permanent.
Abstract: Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) was evaluated as a means of freeze-marketing ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), brown lemurs (L. fulvus), and Parma wallabys (Wallabia parma). Application times of 3–6 sec on unshaven lemurs resulted in successful markings, but the wallabys failed to respond with growth of white hair to application times of 3–10 sec. The freeze-marking process caused little physical discomfort when applied to fleshy regions, and the marks appear to be permanent.
TL;DR: In order to make the apparatus more reliable the electric main sources were connected to an automatic control system which monitored irregularities in the supply and switches to an emergency circuit if necessary.
Abstract: A system for an electrified enclosure designed for baboons is described. Live wires were alternated with grounded wires in order to increase the likelihood of electric shock if an animal tried to escape. A sinusoidal current of 50-Hz frequency, 650-V voltage, and 10 mA was used and proved to be quite efficient and not dangerous. In order to make the apparatus more reliable the electric main sources were connected to an automatic control system which monitored irregularities in the supply and switches to an emergency circuit if necessary.
TL;DR: Propagation techniques for marine fish species, applicable to public aquariums, are reviewed based on work with ornamental tropicals and foodfish species.
Abstract: Propagation techniques for marine fish species, applicable to public aquariums, are reviewed based on work with ornamental tropicals and foodfish species. Adult conditioning, spawning procedures, incubation of eggs, larval rearing, larval food culture, and facilities are discussed with specific references to techniques used at Instant Ocean Hatcheries, Inc, for Anemonefish (Amphiprion spp) culture in synthetic seawater.