This is a pre-print version of the article: Demetriadis et al. (2003) Cultures in Negotiation: Teachers'
Acceptance/Resistance Attitudes Considering the Infusion of Technology into Schools, Computers &
Education, 41, 19-37.
“Cultures in Negotiation”: Teachers’ Acceptance/Resistance
Attitudes Considering the Infusion of Technology into Schools
Demetriadis, S.
1*
, Barbas, A.
**
, Molohides, A.
**
, Palaigeorgiou, G.
*
,
Psillos, D.
**
, Vlahavas, I.
*
, Tsoukalas, I.
*
, Pombortsis, A.
*
*Computer Science Department,
**Pedagogical Department of Elementary Education,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Abstract. A teachers’ training project, employing teacher-mentored in-school
training approach, has been recently initiated in Greek secondary education for the
introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the
classroom. Data resulting from this project indicate that although teachers express
considerable interest in learning how to use technology they need consistent
support and extensive training in order to consider themselves able for integrating
it into their instructional practice. Teachers are interested in using ICT (a) to attain
a better professional profile, and (b) to take advantage of any possible learning
benefits offered by ICT but always in the context of the school culture. They are
willing to explore open and communicative modes of ICT based teaching
whenever school objectives permit, otherwise they appear to cautiously adapt the
use of ICT to the traditional teacher-centered mode of teaching (strongly
connected to the established student examination system). Teachers’ attitude to
adapt ICT mode of use is supported by research evidence that emphasize the
situational character of knowledge and expertise. Authors employ a model
premised on Perceptual Control Theory to interpret available data and discuss the
view that introducing ICT into schools can be understood as a “negotiation”
process between cultures.
Keywords: Media in education; country-specific developments; secondary education;
improving classroom teaching; learning communities.
In many countries the introduction of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) into schools has been praised as the necessary (although not without problems)
course of action for the qualitative improvement of teaching and learning
methodology (OECD, 2001; OECD, 1999, Sinko & Lehtinen, 1999; Pedretti, Mayer-
Smith, & Woodrow, 1999). Introduction of ICT in school is considered a necessity
premised on economic, social and pedagogical rationales (OECD, 2001) and many
governments have launched major programs and invest substantial capitals to support
ICT-in-Education projects (Pelgrum, 2001). According to OECD (1999) this was
estimated at an annual figure of US$16 billion for OECD countries across primary,
secondary and tertiary education, which could well have grown significantly since.
These efforts are expected to foster the important educational reform that ICT based
teaching can hopefully support by transforming students into active knowledge
constructors, a more appropriate profile for the citizens of the Information Society. It
is expected that “an educated citizen in the year 2020 will be more valuable as an
employee because he or she will be able to produce more builders of theory,
synthesizers, and inventors of strategy than valuable as an employee who manages
facts” (Di Sessa, 1998 cited by Hamza & Alhalabi, 1999).
1
Corresponding Author:
Stavros Demetriadis, Computer Science Department, PO Box 888 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
54006 Thessaloniki, Greece
Tel. (++3031) 998443, fax: (++3031) 998419, email: sdemetri@csd.auth.gr
At the same time though a dissatisfying phenomenon is recorded: teachers in schools
do not appear to make effective use of information technology for teaching (Zhao &
Cziko, 2001; Stetson & Bagwell, 1999; Pedretti, Mayer-Smith, & Woodrow., 1999;
Ely, 1993; OECD, 2001). It seems that teachers’ attitudes regarding ICT use in
schools not only pose difficulties in the use of technology per se but also cancel the
learning benefits expected to spring from the instructional reform. Teachers are
characterized as being ‘technophobic’ about using ICT (Rosen & Weil, 1995;
Brosnan, 1997 cited in Selwyn, Dawes & Mercer, 2001). They are also blamed of
resisting instructional reform being rooted in improper pedagogical beliefs (Gillman,
1989; Finlayson & Perry, 1995 cited in Selwyn, Dawes & Mercer, 2001), which leads
to a considerable variation of the supposed uniformly designed instructional reform
efforts. The overall picture seems to be that introduction of ICT in schools, although
long awaited and strongly supported, encounters significant problems related to the
attitudes of the people who are responsible for its use in the classroom.
In this paper we present and discuss our experiences from the effort to train teachers
in the Greek secondary schools to use ICT as a means for teaching broader subjects of
the curriculum. In the Greek context this program is innovative in two aspects. First,
it is the first time ever that teachers are offered training regarding the use of specific
educational software, thus advancing the use of ICT in the curriculum. Second,
teachers’ training is being delivered in school by teacher-mentors, i.e. their colleagues
who, after attending a postgraduate specialization course, administer training sessions
in schools appropriately equipped with computer laboratories.
Our work focuses on the acceptance and/or resistance attitudes that teachers develop
regarding the training efforts and their initial attitudes towards incorporating ICT in
their teaching practice. In the following we first outline the general picture
concerning the use of ICT in schools worldwide as documented in the literature. We
then present our recorded data and try to reach a deeper understanding by connecting
to a consistent theoretical framework emerging primarily from the application of a
model premised on Perceptual Control Theory. This framework also comprises our
supported view that the infusion of ICT into school can be conceptualized as
initializing a negotiation process between cultures.
ICT in schools
How is ICT used in schools?
Research data indicate that the introductory step for computers in school is using
them in administrative tasks and not as part of the learning process (McCannon &
Crews, 2000, p. 111). There is also indication that teachers proceed to adopt ICT in
stages. Wells & Anderson (1995) (cited in Myhre, 1998) report that teachers initially
focus on their own interaction with the new medium and as they gradually become
comfortable with the technology they start deliberating upon potential learning
benefits that would result from the use of the computer. Myhre (1998) concludes that
this increased familiarity with computers allows teachers to turn their interest in the
pedagogical use of technology (rather than its operational issues) but also emphasizes
that such change processes do not occur rapidly and are not easily achieved.
Two important questions are relevant at this point: (a) “Under what conditions are
teachers motivated to use technology in classroom?” and (b) “What kind of
instructional methodology do teachers employ after deciding to use technology?”.
Zhao & Cziko (2001) formulate an answer to the first question, employing a
Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) based perspective. According to PCT (Powers,
1973; McClelland, 1998) the activation of purposeful agents (such as human beings)
towards success of their objectives occurs when a discrepancy is detected between
what is perceived and what is internally established as a standard of reference.
Discrepancies could emerge either as a result of changing perceptions about
conditions of external environment or as an alteration of internal reference condition.
As a result the individual begins to vary his/her behavior trying to minimize the
discrepancy and its consequences. These internal reference conditions should be
conceptualised as parts of a hierarchy where higher-level conditions (goals) are the
most important to maintain. Many times people accept to alter lower level goals in
order to succeed stability in higher levels. An interesting element of the PCT
approach is that human perception about environmental conditions (and not human
behaviour) is considered as the independent variable that defines further human
actions which have as objective to minimize detected discrepancies. Following this
perspective three conditions are identified as necessary for teachers to use technology
(Zhao & Cziko, 2001, p. 27):
1. Teachers must believe that technology can more effectively achieve or
maintain a higher-level goal than what has been used (“effectiveness”).
2. Teachers must believe that using technology will not cause disturbances to
other higher-level goals that they evaluate as more important than the one
being maintained (“disturbances”)
3. Teachers must believe that they have the ability and resources to use
technology (“control”).
It is therefore supposed that if these conditions are met, teachers will introduce ICT in
the classroom. But how do they actually teach when using ICT? Available data are
rather disappointing. Overall there is evidence that ICT is assimilated into the
established way of teaching without teachers making effective use of the new medium
to create innovative learning experiences. “Technology use reflects traditional
classroom methodology, though affording some increased attention to the individual
learner. It still depends too much on highly motivated pioneering principals and
teachers” (OECD 2001, p. 67). Also “information technology in the classroom is used
in an ineffective way and it has been proved difficult to integrate within traditional
curriculum settings” (Jules Van Belle & Soetaert, 2001, p. 38).
What are the obstacles for using ICT in schools?
There are many elements identified as obstacles in the way of introducing ICT in
schools. Pelgrum (2001) presents a list of ten such issues that educational
practitioners perceive as serious impediments for realizing their ICT related goals.
From this group of ten we isolate the three major ones: (1) insufficient number of
computers, (2) teachers’ lack of knowledge/skills, and (3) difficult to integrate in
instruction. Ely (1993) similarly distinguishes as major conditions, relevant to ICT
implementation, the following: (1) dissatisfaction with the status quo, (2) existence of
knowledge and skills, and (3) availability of resources.
The two taxonomies identify, more or less, the same issues: Ely’s “existence of
knowledge and skills” relates to Pelgrum’s “teachers lack knowledge/skills”. Also
Ely’s “availability of resources” is relative to Pelgrum’s “insufficient number of
computers”. Finally Ely’s “dissatisfaction with the status quo” is directly related to
what Zhao & Cziko (2001) describe as “discrepancies that activate individual”. The
issue of teachers’ confidence in their ICT competence as a major factor for
integrating technology in teaching is reported in other studies as well. Mooij &
Smeets (2001) state that “if teachers are not confident in their ability or competence
to handle computers this may hamper their willingness to introduce technology in
their classroom”. In an international study (Smeets et al., 1999 cited in Mooij &
Smeets, 2001) it is also reported that the most important reason teachers mention for
not using ICT is that they are not familiar with ICT or they feel unsure about it. This
ICT competence factor is the same that Zhao & Cziko (2001) refer to as “Control
Principle”.
Some other important factors are also recorded as significantly influencing ICT use in
schools. Teachers claiming to follow more innovative educational practices (use of
inquiry, project-oriented work, hands-on activities) are more likely to use new
technologies than those who stick to the more traditional instructional approaches.
(Honey & Moeller, 1990 cited in Myhre, 1998). According to Mooij & Smeets (2001)
school manager’s policy and budgetary decisions and in general the attitude of the
school manager (their commitment and decisions) are expected to be relevant to the
ICT innovation process.
As a conclusion, there are three major issues repeatedly identified by research as
important for introducing ICT into the classroom. Namely:
1. “Control” (possessing working knowledge of ICT, being confident, having
control over technology) as an enabling and psychologically reassuring
factor.
2. “Resources” (number of available computers) as an enabling factor.
3. “Inner dissatisfaction” (dissatisfaction with the current status) as a
motivating - activating factor.
Introduction of technology into Greek secondary schools
Greek secondary education comprises three categories of schools: Gymnasiums
(lower secondary, ages 13-15), Lyceums (upper secondary, ages 16-18) and
Technical Vocational Institutions (ages 16-18). Students in the two upper classes of
Lyceum have to participate in centrally administered examinations (by the Ministry
of Education and Religious Affairs), which in great degree determine whether they
enter tertiary education institutions. Currently in Greek secondary schools there is not
any systematic use of ICT for teaching broader subjects of the curriculum. The
existing computer laboratories are in great part used for teaching technology related
lessons (informatics, graphics art, etc.) in the vocational schools. However there are
several other computer laboratories installed (or being installed) by the “Odyssey”
project (see below) already used for teachers’ training and instructional use of ICT.
ICT introduction to the curriculum is in great part also centrally administered (see
Greece-OECD Country Note, 2000). The Ministry of Education has launched an EC
funded project for the extended use of ICT in the curriculum. Head manager of this
project (most appropriately called “Odyssey”, http://odysseia.cti.gr) is the Computer
Technology Institute (CTI) (http://www.cti.gr). Within the “Odyssey” project, a series
of subprojects have been initiated which include (among others) installation of
computer laboratories, connecting to Internet, development of educational software
and teacher training. Such a subproject has been recently initiated for the training of
in-service teachers on the educational use of ICT. The project employs a teacher-
mentored in-school training scheme and its objective is to provide both basic ICT
knowledge along with advanced training regarding the instructional use of specific
educational software. Teacher-mentors are selected teachers of various specialties
who initially attend a yearlong course of postgraduate specialization on the
educational use of ICT. These courses are administered and delivered by cooperating
University departments. Subsequently teacher-mentors are allocated to selected
schools, which are already equipped with appropriate infrastructure (i.e. “Odyssey”
project computer laboratories), and work as facilitators transferring and sharing their
experience with colleagues.
Preparing teacher-mentors; The ICT Post-Graduate Specialization Course
In Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, twenty (20) selected in-service teachers (10
physicists and 10 literature teachers) attended this yearlong postgraduate
specialization course (PGS course). The course was administered cooperatively by
the Computer Science Department and the Pedagogical Department for Elementary
Education. PGS course comprised three distinct training phases. Initially it provided
300 hours (about 4 months) of lessons organized in two complementary series:
technology studies and pedagogical studies. In these lessons teachers attended
lectures and participated in laboratory sessions, group discussions and team project
works. Academics and other highly specialized educators delivered these lessons
emphasizing ICT supported didactic approaches (interactive learning environments,
project based learning, collaborative learning). Didactic phase was followed by an
apprenticeship phase. Teacher-mentors visited selected schools in the area of
Thessaloniki and, supervised by their course tutors, delivered initial training sessions
to the school teachers. This phase lasted 4 weeks and teacher-mentors worked in
small groups of mixed specialties. So they were introduced to the practical aspects of
their mission and gained hands-on experience. During next semester (spring
semester) teachers-mentors were assigned practice work. Each one of them was
responsible for three of four selected schools (in various places of Northern Greece)
and administered in-school training sessions for the respective school teachers. Their
main objective was twofold: (a) training of teachers of the same specialization (e.g.
Physicists) to the use of domain specific educational software including off-line and
on-line resources (we call these sessions “vertical training” since it addresses the
needs of teachers in specific domain), and (b) the training of every interested teacher
to general ICT tools (i.e. word processors, electronic presentations, Internet
communication, etc.) (“horizontal” training sessions). During their practice teacher-
mentors were supported by their PGS course tutors using Web based communication
facilities (discussion forum and email). Teacher-mentors were regularly reporting to
their tutors on the progress of their training efforts and discussed (both with tutors and
