Vol. 1, No. 2.
ISSN: 1473-8376
www.hlst.ltsn.ac.uk/johlste
Linking Learning Style Preferences and Ethnicity:
International Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism
Management in Australia
Paul Barron (p.barron@mailbox.uq.edu.au) and
Charles Arcodia (c.arcodia@mailbox.uq.edu.au)
The University of Queensland
11 Salisbury Road, Ipswich, Queensland 4305, Australia.
ã Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education
Abstract
International student enrolment at Australian higher education institutions has grown significantly
over the past decade. Traditionally, many international students who study for an Australian
qualification originate from Asia and a majority of these students are of Confucian culture heritage.
While there is a growing body of literature that explores learning issues of Asian students involved in
Australian higher education, there are examples in the literature that promote stereotypical views of
the strengths and weaknesses of international students. This paper examines the individual and
collective preferred learning style of a sample of Confucian heritage culture university students,
analyses links between ethnic origins and preferred learning style and suggests that preferred learning
styles should be taken into consideration when developing a curriculum which is accessed by
international students.
Keywords: learning styles; international hospitality students
Paul Barron is currently a lecturer in Hospitality Management in the School of Tourism and Leisure
Management at The University of Queensland. Paul undertook his first qualification in Hotel
Management at Queen Margaret University College in Edinburgh and commenced a successful
managerial career in the hospitality industry. After nine years working for prestigious hotel
companies such as Hilton, Paul decided to pursue an academic career and secured an academic
position at Glasgow Caledonian University. Paul is currently completing his Ph.D. His research
interests centre around hospitality management education, specifically focusing on international
students' educational experiences in Australian universities.
Charles Arcodia is the Deputy Director of Studies for the Faculty of Business Economics and Law at
The University of Queensland. He has held leadership positions in a variety of educational and
business service contexts. Directly before he joined the university sector he was the manager of an
enterprise involved with the organisation and management of event fundraising projects. He teaches
primarily in the event management field and is currently leading the development of a comprehensive
programme of event management courses. Charles has an active research agenda in areas relevant to
event management and broader tourism and leisure issues.
Barron, P. and Arcodia, C. (2002) Linking Learning Style Preferences and Ethnicity: International
Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism Management in Australia
Introduction: International Student Education in Australia
International student enrolment at Australian higher education institutions has grown significantly
over the past decade and Australia now ranks third behind the United States and the United Kingdom
as the destination of choice for international students (IDP Education Australia, 2000). As a
consequence, the number of international students studying Australian programmes has more than
doubled, from 46,600 to 108,600 students in the period 1992 to 2000 (Maslen, 1999; IDP Education
Australia, 2000). The significance of this increase is further reinforced as international students, when
expressed as a proportion of the total number of students enrolled in Australian universities, rose from
5.5 per cent in 1991 to 9.6 per cent in 1997. During this period therefore, universities in Australia
experienced an internationalisation of their activity; both in terms of the number of international
students studying Australian higher education programmes, and an increase in the density of
international students, with almost one in ten of the total enrolment originating overseas.
Traditionally, the majority of international students that study for an Australian qualification originate
from Asia. Dobson et al. state that:
“…in 1997, the vast majority of international students came from
Asia (over 85% of the total) – the top ten countries of origin are all in
Asia. Specifically, the South East Asian (SEA) countries of Malaysia,
Singapore, Hong Kong and Indonesia contributed 68% of the total
overseas student enrolment.” (1998:10)
This trend continued into first semester 2000 with a similar majority of international students
originating from countries in Asia. Australia’s reliance on several South-East Asian countries is
emphasised by the fact that 52,500 international students (almost half the total) came from Singapore,
Malaysia or Hong Kong. A further 33,000 international students originated from Indonesia, China,
India, Thailand, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea or Vietnam (Davis et al., 2000). Therefore it can be seen
that, in semester one 2000, 79 per cent of all international students studying Australian programmes
originated from Asia, the majority of those from the traditional South-East Asian countries. A
majority of these students are of Chinese origin and hereafter, they will be referred to as Confucian
Heritage Culture (CHC) students (Lee, 1999).
Several reasons have been suggested which may result in CHC students deciding to study overseas. In
an analysis of Chinese hospitality and tourism students who decided to study abroad, Zhao (1991)
questioned the quality of higher education in China and found that these Chinese students felt it
necessary to study overseas in order to guarantee a quality tertiary education experience. Adams and
Chapman (1998:599) emphasised this educational quality aspect and suggested that tertiary education
in Asia has to cope with ‘weak physical facilities and severe limitations of faculty and staff’. Diaz and
Krauss (1996) argued that the demand for higher education places in many Asian countries far
exceeds supply and therefore many Asian students cannot study in their country due to lack of higher
education places and consequently, are forced to study overseas. In addition, it would appear that
certain programmes, most notably in the hospitality and tourism sector, are becoming more popular as
study disciplines that lead to a respectable career (Zhao, 1991). This coupled with the rapid growth of
the service industry in, for example, mainland China (Huyton, 1997), has resulted in an increase in the
demand for hospitality and tourism management programmes. Thus the consequent combination of
perceived poor quality, limited facilities, poor or average staff, limited supply of tertiary education
places, increase in career opportunities and demand by students results in many CHC students
undertaking hospitality and tourism management studies abroad. In addition, Australia’s proximity to
Asia, its climate, relatively safe society and the cost of education make Australia a popular destination
for CHC students (Barron, 2002).
Confucian Approaches to Education
Confucianism has long been honoured for its blend of secular rationalism and ethical mindfulness. In
recent years it has been more favourably assessed as Asian states search for an identity and a set of
values which is uniquely theirs, which insulates them from some aspects of Western cultures, but
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 1(2), 1-13. 2
Barron, P. and Arcodia, C. (2002) Linking Learning Style Preferences and Ethnicity: International
Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism Management in Australia
which still allows them to dialogue with and learn from the philosophical, pedagogical and political
achievements of the West. One of the most profound contributions that Confucianism makes to
philosophical debates is to re-assert the central position of education in forming the person.
Confucian approaches to education promoted a number of significant concepts which are still evident in
the psyche of some Asian cultures. Key among these are the possibility of perfecting the person through
self-cultivation where it is felt that fundamentally all persons are able to be educated. In addition, the
universality of education, where education is seen as a right for all, regardless of status or class (Lam,
1990:59) is an underpinning philosophy. Equally the significance of the role of the teacher is important.
In Confucian cultures the teacher’s role is not only to impart wisdom to students but also to act as a
moral role model. Similarly the importance of diligence in education is essential. Here it is understood
that the responsibility for learning is placed on the student and that they are encouraged to do their
best. Intellectual capacity is valued but intellect alone is not enough to be successful; diligence and
effort are also required.
Confucianism continues to have a profound influence upon Asia, inspiring and providing intellectual
and moral coherence to a large part of the world's population (Little and Reed, 1989:xvi). It has had
direct impact not only on the Chinese cultures of China, Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia, but also in
Korea, Vietnam, and Japan (Irwin, 1996:110; Milner and Quilty, 1996:270-71). All of these countries
to some extent adopted Confucian mores to underpin their social institutions and, while Confucian
influence has varied according to the ideological stance of different governments (Chen, 1993), it has
nonetheless been of enduring significance in East Asian cultures.
CHC students studying at university in Australia are more likely than domestic students to
successfully complete the academic aspect of their programme and, indeed, often outperform their
Western counterparts (Burns, 1991; Dobson et al., 1998). However, successful completion of their
programme does not necessarily mean the student had an enjoyable or satisfying educational
experience (Meggit et al., 1995). Reasons for this better performance could be financially motivated
(Dobson et al., 1998; Burns, 1991), or it may be that an element of self-selection is evident (Salili,
1999). It is also suggested that cultural values may influence the achievement orientation of the Asian
student in that the Asian concept of success is focused, amongst other aspects, on academic
achievement. In general CHC students have been taught to work hard and great emphasis is placed on
their learning and education as a means to success and building character. Thus CHC students are
socialised to value hard work and excellence in education. In addition, the academic success of a child
is an important source of pride for the entire family and equally, academic failure is a stigma borne by
all associated parties. Therefore, driven by a sense of duty towards parents and influenced by cultural
values which emphasise hard work and endurance, CHC students take more personal responsibility
than their Western counterparts for their success or failure (Salili, 1999).
Cultural Orientation and Learning Stereotypes
Generalisations about cultural orientation are rarely accurate in terms of the individual or in terms of
subgroups within that culture, but there are abundant examples in the cross-cultural educational
literature which promote stereotypical views of the strengths and weaknesses of international students.
Viewed positively, CHC students are considered to be high achievers, diligent note-takers, well-
disciplined, hard-working, quiet, respectful of lecturing staff and good attendees, (Barron 2002; Adam
et al., 1999; Volet and Renshaw, 1999; Burns, 1991; Bradley and Bradley, 1984). Cortazzi and Jin
(1996) found that Western teachers of English working in Chinese universities considered their
students to be persistent, thorough, friendly, in possession of a strong desire to learn and good at
memorising.
This positive view is, however, tempered by a more negative perspective of CHC students, who, in
addition to possessing predictable problems associated with dislocation, culture shock and loneliness,
also possess unexpected, or unpredictable, problems affecting their learning which have to be
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Barron, P. and Arcodia, C. (2002) Linking Learning Style Preferences and Ethnicity: International
Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism Management in Australia
contended with by the academic staff at the Western university. This view continues to remain
widespread among Australian academic staff (Volet and Renshaw, 1999).
The main criticism that is focused towards CHC students is a perceived propensity to rote learn
(Samuelowicz, 1987; Kember and Gow, 1990) leading to a surface approach as opposed to a deep
approach to learning. Thus it is assumed that the CHC student does not attempt to understand the
material but merely commits it to memory in order to access it at some later time (Marton and Saljo,
1976). Further criticisms include viewing the teacher and/or text as the definitive source of knowledge
and lacking in skills of self-management which results in an expectation and/or requirement to
identify specific reading for a subject (Burns, 1991; Ballard and Clanchy, 1994; Samuelowicz, 1987;
Robertson et al., 2000); being passive, quiet and non-participative in class (Kember and Gow, 1990;
Ballard and Clanchy, 1991; Yanhong Li and Kaye, 1998; Ramsay et al., 1999); unable to reference
correctly and often being guilty of plagiarism (Watson, 1999); unaware of, and not skilled in,
assessment methods that are used commonly in Western universities, e.g. essays (Heikinheimo and
Shute, 1986) and possessing inadequate English language proficiency (Samuelowicz, 1987; Ballard
and Clanchy, 1991; Burns, 1991; Mullins et al., 1995; Yanhong Li and Kaye, 1998).
Increasingly however, researchers are challenging such stereotypes (see for example, Kember and
Gow, 1991) and delving deeper into the cultural idiosyncrasies which manifest themselves as
differences in teaching and learning approaches. Indeed, Watkins and Biggs (1999:723) highlight the
‘paradox of the Asian learner’ arguing that if Asian students are products of a highly regimented and
authoritarian education system that has encouraged rote learning, then surely students will not be able
to perform successfully or even adequately when they study at a Western university. The paradox of
the Asian learner is neatly summarised by Marton et al., (1997:23-24) who consider that depending on
the particular researchers’ view, the Asian student will be categorised as either ‘the brainy Asian or
the Asian learner as a rote learner’. These stereotypes are clearly incompatible, as research has shown
that students who rote learn do not demonstrate achievement, with the exception of reproducing trivial
details (Biggs, 1979).
Kember and Gow (1991) highlight the paradox of the Asian learner from a practical viewpoint. They
point out that when commencing teaching at tertiary level in Hong Kong they were faced with very
different anecdotal messages regarding their students. Many colleagues warned them that students in
Hong Kong relied heavily on rote learning and memorisation and that they were more passive and less
interactive in class than Western students. However, the same colleagues also described Hong Kong
students as being very good, keen and competitive. Therefore, they undertook research in an attempt
to determine if Hong Kong students’ learning styles were surface in orientation. They questioned
almost 2,200 students studying a variety of programmes at the Hong Kong Polytechnic. The results
did not conform to the anecdotal evidence that rote learning was more widespread among Hong Kong
tertiary students than among their counterparts in Western universities. They compared their results
with the results of a similar study conducted in Australia and found that ‘overall, the Hong Kong
students have somewhat higher scores on the deep approach scales and lower scores on the surface
approach scales than Australian students’ (Kember and Gow, 1991:121). They concluded their
research by suggesting that the image of the Asian student as a rote learner is perhaps explained more
by the nature of the curriculum and the teaching environment than by a cultural characteristic of the
student. This point is emphasised by Tang and Biggs (1999) who suggested that in addition to
curricula, the various methods of assessment employed by Asian schools encourage memorisation and
a surface approach to learning.
Different Types of Learning Styles
Kolb (1984) identified individuals’ learning styles by means of the Learning Styles Inventory in which
four stages of learning that require specific learning abilities were identified. Based on Kolb’s
theories, Honey and Mumford (1986) developed the Learning Styles Questionnaire and suggested four
basic learning styles: activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist. Activists like to involve themselves in
new practices and enjoy tackling problems by brainstorming. They appear to be easily bored and
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 1(2), 1-13. 4
Barron, P. and Arcodia, C. (2002) Linking Learning Style Preferences and Ethnicity: International
Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism Management in Australia
prefer to move from one task to the next as the excitement fades. Reflectors are more cautious and
thoughtful and prefer to consider all possible avenues of action before making any decisions. As the
name would suggest, any actions they take are based on observation and reflection. Theorists like to
integrate their observations into logical models based on analysis and objectivity. They appear to
enjoy the structure associated with sound theoretical frameworks. Pragmatists are practical, hands-on
people who like to apply new ideas immediately. They often get impatient with an over emphasis on
reflection.
There is little research concerning CHC students studying hospitality, tourism and leisure
management at university level in Australia. As disciplines, however, hospitality, tourism and leisure
management appear attractive to CHC students and draw a higher than average number of such
students (Malfroy and Daruwalla, 2000; Khwaja and Bosselman, 1990). This is perhaps due to the
notion that a career in the hospitality and tourism industry is no longer seen as demeaning (Zhao,
1991), coupled with the rapid growth of the hotel and tourism industry in, for example, mainland
China (Huyton, 1997). Therefore, while precise numbers are difficult to locate, it has been suggested
that, within these disciplines, the undergraduate student population is becoming more diverse (Hsu,
1996). A consequence of this diversity is that the cultural differences which often manifest themselves
with different cognitive and linguistic patterns, often constitute formidable barriers that initially may
prevent successful participation in Western classrooms (Beaven, et al., 1998). Western tertiary
institutions are consequently confronted with the task of managing this diversity, and not only of
ensuring a measure of quality in CHC students’ learning but doing so also for domestic students who
share the same classrooms.
Learning Style Preferences of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Students
Several studies have been recently undertaken that attempt to identify the learning preferences of
hospitality, tourism and travel management students in the UK and Asia. These studies would suggest
that the vast majority of students who are attracted into hospitality management programmes in the
UK have preferred learning styles which enjoy practical activity, but who are less comfortable with
theorising and reflection. As such these students display preferences for activist learning styles
(Lashley, 1999). Indeed, it would have appeared that these students thrived on the challenges
associated with new experiences and they were described as tending to ‘act first and consider the
consequences later’ (Lashley, 1999:181). Not surprisingly, students with activist learning style
preferences learn most easily from activities involving groupwork that is exciting, challenging and
quick to change. On the other hand, Activists find it more difficult to learn when they have to take a
passive role, do not become involved or undertake solitary work. They are not keen on practising and
do not enjoy the constraints of having to follow precise instructions (Honey and Mumford, 2000).
Indeed, such was the propensity for these students to adopt activist learning styles, that strategy had to
be designed and implemented in order to develop students studying hospitality and tourism
programmes in the host universities into more reflective practitioners.
However, it would appear that domestic students studying Hospitality Management, Hotel and
Catering Management, Tourism Management and Travel and Tourism Studies at Higher Diploma
level and above in various colleges and universities in Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan already
display preferences for reflector learning styles (Wong et al., 2000). It was found that all but one of
the student groups questioned displayed a strong preference for the reflector learning style. As such,
these students prefer to learn through observation and benefit from the opportunity to think before
acting. They appreciate the opportunity to undertake research before an activity and think about what
they have learned. Reflectors find it more difficult to learn from activities where they are forced into
the limelight, for example through peer presentations or role-playing. Similarly, methods of learning
such as case studies may prove problematic for these students as they are not keen on undertaking a
task without prior notice or sufficient information (Honey and Mumford, 2000).
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 1(2), 1-13. 5
