The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval
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The message of this article is that the unpredictability of state-dependent effects in man is more apparent than real and failures to demonstrate state dependence are restricted to situations in which utilization of stored information is tested in the presence of discretely identifiable retrieval cues.Abstract:
An enduring problem in the study of human state-dependent retrieval concerns the apparent unpredictability of the phenomenon. Although many investigators have observed that utilization of information in episodic memory critically depends for its success on restoration, at the time of attempted retrieval, of the pharmacological state in which the information was originally acquired, many others have been unable to find evidence of such state-dependent effects. Indeed, negative results are so common that human state dependence has come to be popularly regarded as an untrustworthy phenomenon of little practical or theoretical significance. The message of this article is that the unpredictability of state-dependent effects in man is more apparent than real. Evidence is presented to the effect that, with very few exceptions, failures to demonstrate state dependence are restricted to situations in which utilization of stored information is tested in the presence of discretely identifiable retrieval cues, and successes, to situations in which retrieval occurs in the absence of any observable reminders. It is also shown that when the conditions of retrieval, with respect to the presence or absence of explicit cues, remain constant, the probability of demonstrating state dependence also remains constant across a relatively broad spectrum of experimental conditions. Speculations about the nature of the cognitive mechanisms underlying the so-called “cuing effect” in human state dependence are offered, and promising new directions for research are outlined.read more
Citations
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References
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Book
Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences
TL;DR: This is the revision of the classic text in the field, adding two new chapters and thoroughly updating all others as discussed by the authors, and the original structure is retained, and the book continues to serve as a combined text/reference.
Journal ArticleDOI
Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
Endel Tulving,Donald M. Thomson +1 more
TL;DR: This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by nonlist items.
Journal ArticleDOI
Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.
Fergus I. M. Craik,Endel Tulving +1 more
TL;DR: For instance, Craik and Lockhart as discussed by the authors explored the levels of processing framework for human memory research and found that deeper encodings took longer to accomplish and were associated with higher levels of performance on the subsequent memory test.
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