Showing papers on "Compulsory education published in 2008"

The use of ICT in the teaching and learning of physical education in compulsory education: how do we prepare the workforce of the future?

Abstract: This paper reports on research into the use of ICT within a one‐year initial teacher education (ITE) course in the UK, specialising in physical education (PE). The study examined how the course, which operates in both university and school‐based settings, endeavoured to support trainees' use of ICT in PE and then to identify areas where the programme could be improved in this respect. It also noted any specific training or resourcing needs which may be required to implement the recommended improvements. The findings showed the high level of enthusiasm of the trainees, university tutors and school‐based PE teachers for making more use of ICT in teaching and learning PE, and their willingness to make changes in their practice to accommodate this. It also revealed a severe shortage of subject‐specific professional development, and a widespread lack of understanding of needs, which was felt to have contributed to the lack of relevant ICT resources to which most school PE departments had access. Cet article re...

Migrant Opportunity and the Educational Attainment of Youth in Rural China

Abstract: This paper investigates how the reduction of barriers to migration affected the decision of middle school graduates to attend high school in rural China. Change in the cost of migration is identified using exogenous variation across counties in the timing of national identity card distribution, which made it easier for rural migrants to register as temporary residents in urban destinations. After taking care to address potential strengths and weaknesses of our identification strategy, we find a robust, negative relationship between migrant opportunity and high school enrollment that cannot be explained by geographic convergence in access to education across rural China.

Creativity and performativity: the case of further education

Abstract: This article examines the circumstances affecting creative teaching and learning within the specific context of English further education (FE)—a sector which has proved to be particularly fertile ground for performativity. Beginning with an analysis of notions of creativity in education and a description of the peculiar history and policy context of FE, the article problematises the relationship between representations of creativity and the current situation of teachers and learners. Drawing on a range of empirical studies and policy analyses, it is argued that FE is increasingly positioned at the ‘lower end’ of a largely class‐based division of post‐compulsory education in England. In such a division, the authors argue, meaningful creativity is difficult to achieve. Within the performative context of FE, attempts to interpret official discourse on creativity may only serve to reproduce and exacerbate existing inequalities in education.

Meeting the Needs of Students with Disabilities in General Education Classrooms in China

Abstract: China has initiated experiments on “Learning in Regular Classrooms” (LRC) since the mid-1980s in response to the international trend of inclusive education and the domestic need of serving large numbers of children with disabilities. LRC is the main strategy to promote compulsory education for youngsters with disabilities. Despite the fact that LRC has been practiced for 20 years and the enrollment of children with disabilities is increasing each year, high instructional quality for students with disabilities who are learning in the general education classrooms has not yet been achieved. This is largely due to the shortage of trained teachers and resources. The authors advocate that a more systematic teacher training system in China be developed to address diverse learning needs in general classrooms and domestic and international efforts be made to transform the education system from the current rigidity toward a more flexible structure.

The 150-year history of English language assessment in Japanese education

Abstract: In the present study I describe the 150-year history of school-based English language assessment in Japan. The history is divided into four major periods according to the purposes of English language education set by the government in the different periods: (1) 1860 to 1945, when English was first introduced and taught in schools mainly for elite classes; (2) 1945 to 1970, when English became part of the compulsory education for the first time; (3) 1970 to 1990 when English began to be regarded as the most effective means to communicate with foreign people in the rapidly shrinking world; and (4) 1990 to the present, when several innovative policies have been introduced into classroom measurement systems. I describe how assessment practices for English education at schools in each of these periods were and still are affected by various factors, including political, economic, and demographic changes in society, as well as academic paradigm shifts in the fields of education and applied linguistics.

Orphanhood and Completion of Compulsory School Education Among Young People in South Africa: Findings From a National Representative Survey

Abstract: We examined the association of orphanhood and completion of compulsory school education among young people in South Africa. In South Africa, school attendance is compulsory through grade 9, which should be completed before age 16. However, family and social factors such as orphanhood and poverty can hinder educational attainment. Participants were 10,452 16-24-year-olds who completed a South African national representative household survey. Overall, 23% had not completed compulsory school levels. In univariate analyses, school completion was lower among those who had experienced orphanhood during school-age years, males, and those who reported household poverty. In multivariate analyses controlling for household poverty, females who had experienced maternal or paternal orphanhood were less likely to have completed school; orphanhood was not independently associated with males' school completion. Findings highlight the need for evidence-informed policies to address the education and social welfare needs of orphans and vulnerable youth, particularly females, in South Africa.

Beyond tuition fees? The legacy of Blair’s government to higher education

Abstract: Although the famous Blair mantra ‘education, education, education’ was applied by his government mainly to the compulsory education sector, there was no shortage of initiatives in Higher Education (HE). The scene was set by the Dearing Report in 1997 which effectively determined the direction of Blair’s first term. The second term enabled Blair to pursue further an agenda of public sector reform, yet the simultaneous commitment to market principles of choice and diversity and to social inclusion created major tensions and dilemmas. Funding the expanded HE was the stimulus which led to Dearing, and has continued to be the major challenge of the ten‐year period.

The effects of low attainment on young people's outcomes at age 22–23 in Scotland

Abstract: A common concern among policy makers in Europe is the low level of qualifications of some school leavers and the possible consequences of this for their life chances and for countries' economic prosperity. This article considers the impact of young people's low levels of educational attainment on their later life chances, especially on labour market participation. It identifies the long‐term negative effects of low attainment and explores the extent to which family background also continues to influence young people's outcomes. It examines the outcomes of low attainment among young men and women and considers whether low attainment has a different impact on the prospects of young men and women. The article also investigates whether staying on at school improves longer‐term chances and opportunities for low attainers. These questions have strong policy relevance, and are explored using data from a nationally representative survey of Scottish school leavers.

What Future for the Relationship between Early Childhood Education and Care and Compulsory Schooling

Abstract: The relationship between early childhood education and care (ECEC) and compulsory schooling is the subject of increasing research and policy attention, as attendance at both grows globally, as the discourse of lifelong learning emphasises that learning begins at birth, and as investment in early childhood is increasingly advocated for the returns it brings in later education. Having discussed the structural and cultural framework that contextualises the relationship, the article considers four possible types of relationship: preparing the child for school, stand off, making the school ready for children, and the vision of a meeting place. It concludes with a discussion of some critical questions and of how the relationship between early childhood and compulsory school should not be confined only to the first few school grades: full resolution requires inclusion of secondary education.

Child labour and Education For All: an issue paper

Abstract: Education is a key element in the prevention of child labor; at the same time, child labor is one of the main obstacles to Education for All (EFA). Understanding the interplay between education and child labor is therefore critical to achieving both EFA and child labor elimination goals. This paper forms part of Understanding Children Work (UCW) broader efforts towards improving this understanding of education-child labor links, providing a brief overview of relevant research and key knowledge gaps. The study largely confirms the conventional wisdom that child labor harms children's ability to enter and survive in the school system, and makes it more difficult for children to derive educational benefit from schooling once in the system. The evidence also suggested that these negative effects are not limited to economic activity but also extend to household chores, and that the intensity of work (in economic activity or household chores) is particularly important in determining the impact of work on schooling. As regards the link between education provision and child labor, it pointed to the important role of inadequate schooling in keeping children out of the classroom and into work. This evidence indicated that both the school quality and school access can play an important role in household decisions concerning whether children study or work.

Middle-Class Families and School Choice: Freedom versus Equity in the Context of a ‘local Education Market’:

Abstract: This article analyses the impact of social class on the process of school choice in Spain from the viewpoint of middle-class families. This practice must be seen in the framework of the new social context generated by the information society. The article begins by briefly describing changes in school choice policies in Spain. For a wider understanding, these changes are related to the broader process of the marketisation of education, which has been taking place in this country for the last 20 years. In the second part of the article, qualitative data are presented on how middle-class parents understand and experience the process of choosing a particular school for their children. In this study, 24 interviews were carried out in the city of Granada (southern Spain). They were fully transcribed and analysed using the methodology suggested by 'grounded theory' and Bourdieu's concept of social class. Aspects related to social and cultural capital are added to the traditional social class indicators, which are usually expressed in economic terms. Attention centres on the creation of reconversion strategies for these different forms of capital used by families to obtain positional advantage for their children. This research thus revisits the principles of social reproduction theories from the viewpoint of the 'winners', i.e. middle-class families. Education in Spain has undergone important changes over the last 30 years. The quantitative and qualitative expansion of the public system has been a key aspect in this political development. In the early 1990s, both the introduction of comprehensive policies, and the extension of compulsory education to the age of 16 (Educational Reform Act 1990), were the culmination of the modernisation process that had begun in the 1970s (Bonal, 1995). Some may say that the Spanish educational situation is now fairer than in preceding decades, whereas others claim this is merely a mirage. In Bonal's words: 'inequalities have been reduced because at the beginning of the 80s the situation of the service was profoundly inegalitarian. Nevertheless, some privileges are still maintained' (Bonal, 1998, p. 166). Policies are quite often contradictory in their objectives and the resources allocated to achieve them. In some cases, the policies are 'imported' from abroad, in the hope they will solve existing problems. The introduction of market-centred policies in some 'spaces', historically understood as 'public services', is presented by way of 'magic policies' (Ball, 1998, p. 124). In Spain, during the last decade, education has been a field where these changes have taken place (Calero, 1998). There are five aspects in which quasi-market elements have been incorporated into the Spanish educational system (Calero, 1998): structure and differentiation of the 'product' (probably not at curricular level, which is controlled by the State, but in the quality of teachers, extracurricular activities, services, etc.); changes in school choice policies (reducing state control); changes in the financing system (for both public and private schools); the creation of mechanisms to evaluate educational quality and information systems (in order to inform the 'clients of the service'); and, lastly, the introduction of decentralisation policies in relation to school management. There is no doubt about

Academic drift in vocational qualifications? Explorations through the lens of literacy

Abstract: Retention, attainment and progression have become key issues in post‐compulsory education in the UK, as the policy agenda of increasing and widening participation has taken hold. Keeping students in the system, enabling them to gain qualifications and thereby progress to higher level courses is a key educational goal. Yet alongside increasing progression and attainment have emerged discussion of the nature and extent of academic drift within vocational education. This paper seeks to explore these issues in the context of the vocational curriculum in further education colleges in Scotland. Using the lens of literacy practices, the authors explore the ways in which the expectations upon students of the reading and writing associated with learning their subjects can illuminate the nature and extent of academic drift. Evidence is indicated to suggest that there is increasing emphasis given to educational rather than occupational relevance in the vocational curriculum.

Raising the age of compulsory education in england: a neet solution?

Abstract: This paper problematises the official discourse of economic competitiveness and social inclusion used by the 2007 Education and Skills Bill to justify the proposal to extend compulsory participation in education and training in England to the age of 18. Comparisons are drawn between this attempt to raise the age of compulsion and previous attempts, which took place in a significantly different socio-economic context. It is argued that the needs of those most likely to be affected by the current proposal – young people not in education, employment or training (NEET) – are subordinated to the needs of an English economy that is increasingly based upon low-skill, low-pay work relations.

Urban-Rural Disparities in Access to Primary and Secondary Education Under Market Reform

Abstract: This paper outlines policies related to rural-urban educational inequality, then investigates evidence about disparities in access to primary and secondary education. Analyzing data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey and the 2000 Census, we focus on children in two age overlapping groups: “compulsory age,” or 7 to 16 year-olds, and “secondary age,” or 13 to 18 year-olds. Analyses show that the level of education in rural and urban areas is increasing rapidly, and that a large majority of urban and rural compulsory age children are now enrolled. Among the few children who remain locked out of access to compulsory education, the vast majority are rural; minority children and children in western regions are disproportionately represented; and girls are slightly overrepresented. Our investigation of secondary age children shows that as rural access to secondary level schooling has risen, so has urban access, such that a substantial rural penalty persists. There are significant geographic and ethnic disparities in the level of rural access, and in the rural-urban gap. The specific educational penalty for living in a rural area varies across regions, particularly at the secondary level. Moreover, our census analyses indicate that on average, the educational penalty for living in a rural area is substantially greater for minorities than for Han, and somewhat greater for girls than for boys, at both the compulsory and secondary ages. 2 Introduction Education has an increasingly important role to play in ameliorating or exacerbating rural-urban inequality in China. By the turn of the century, a person’s access to education had begun to matter a lot for his or her lifetime economic security. Returns to education in urban China have been rising since the onset of the market reform period in the late 1970s; returns nearly tripled during the period 1992 to 2003, rising from 4.0 to 11.4 percent. In rural areas, by the year 2000, an additional year of education increased wages by 6.4 percent among those engaged in wage employment, and education is becoming the dominant factor that determines whether rural laborers are successful in finding more lucrative off-farm jobs. Historically, children in rural areas have faced substantial disadvantages in securing education, but the trend in recent years, as incomes, inequality, and educational costs have all risen, is unclear. In this chapter, we review policies that have sought to address the urban rural gap in recent years, employ the China Health and Nutrition Survey (hereafter CHNS) to illuminate recent changes in urban-rural educational disparities, and analyze a sample from the 2000 census for a more detailed description of rural-urban disparities. Data Sources We draw on longitudinal, individual-level data on education from the 1989 through 2004 waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), a multipurpose panel survey conducted by the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine and the Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, in collaboration with the Carolina Population

Childhood and the Philosophy of Education: An Anti-Aristotelian Perspective

Abstract: A study that critically examines the basis for the growing belief that compulsory education is a necessary social good. It also addresses whether adulthood should be conceived as an entirely separate realm from childhood.Philosophical accounts of childhood have tended to derive from Plato and Aristotle, who portrayed children (like women, animals, slaves, and the mob) as unreasonable and incomplete in terms of lacking formal and final causes and ends. Despite much rhetoric concerning either the sinfulness or purity of children (as in Puritanism and Romanticism respectively), the assumption that children are marginal has endured. Modern theories, including recent interpretations of neuroscience, have re-enforced this sense of children's incompleteness.This fascinating monograph seeks to overturn this philosophical tradition. It develops instead a 'fully semiotic' perspective, arguing that in so far as children are no more or less interpreters of the world than adults, they are no more or less reasoning agents. This, the book shows, has radical implications, particularly for the question of how we seek to educate children.The study will examine critically the bases for the beliefs that more and more compulsory education is necessarily a social good, and that adulthood should be conceived as an entirely separate realm from childhood. "Continuum Studies in Educational Research" (CSER) is a major new series in the field of educational research. Written by experts and scholars for experts and scholars, this ground-breaking series focuses on research in the areas of comparative education, history, lifelong learning, philosophy, policy, post-compulsory education, psychology and sociology. Based on cutting edge research and written with lucidity and passion, the "CSER" series showcases only those books that really matter in education - studies that are major, that will be remembered for having made a difference.

EFA Politics, Policies and Progress.

Abstract: The Millennium Development Goal 2 has a target of ensuring that, by 2015, all children will complete a full course of primary schooling This is consistent with the second goal of the Dakar Framework of Action for Education for All that pre-dated it, except that the Dakar goal qualifies the Millennium Goal with ‘compulsory education of good quality’ Some countries have made spectacular progress towards increased access to education of good quality across all social groups; other countries have seen much less progress Development agencies regularly appeal to political will as a key requirement for progress on EFA But what is political will? What role do political interests play in the formulation of public policies and in their implementation? What factors, other than political interests, promote progress in education for all? These are questions that CREATE intends to address in a series of case studies in the future This monograph is a prelude to these case studies and is intended to inform the conceptual framework and methods that will guide them The monograph casts its literature net very wide It addresses the literatures in educational policy, educational innovation and educational implementation in developed and developing countries over the past half century It explores literatures from political science on public policy and development It mines the literature on EFA policy and progress for glimpses of the political dimension It delves into the history of the development of compulsory education in the West, both for the substantive lessons that may be learned, as well as for the conceptual frameworks and methods that have been employed

Education and Mobility

Abstract: We show that the length of compulsory education has a causal impact on regional labour mobility. The analysis is based on a quasi-exogenous staged Norwegian school reform, and register data on the whole population. Based on the results, we conclude that part of the US-Europe difference, as well as the European North-South difference in labour mobility, is likely to be due to differences in levels of education in the respective regions.

Assessment of Bilingual Education in the Basque Country

Abstract: The evaluation of bilingual education in the Basque Country has gone through different stages during the last 25 years. From 1983 onwards, language models of schooling A, B and D were developed, according to parental choice. Model A is not considered a bilingual education model, since L2 is taught as a subject only, while models B and D are immersion programmes. The first doubt that arose in those years was whether the learning of L2 would affect the competence level of pupils in L1, and how the different language models of schooling would function. This was the main reason for the EIFE 1, 2 and 3 studies and the HINE study. These evaluations compared models A, B and D on scores obtained in the two official languages. Around 1995 a new phase started in Spain when the first evaluations of academic achievement in Primary Education were set up. Many people were convinced then that bilingualism had a price, and that the academic achievement of bilingual pupils would be lower than the academic achievement of m...

A researcher's guide to the Swedish compulsory school reform

Abstract: When studying different types of returns to education, educational reforms are commonly used in the economics literature as a source of exogenous variation in education. The Swedish compulsory school reform is one example; the reform extended compulsory education throughout the country, in different municipalities at different points in time. Such variation across cohorts and regions can be used in a differences-in-differences framework, in order to estimate causal effects of education. This paper provides a guide to researchers who consider using the Swedish reform in an empirical analysis: I present a description and background of the reform, provide some baseline results, a reliability analysis of the reform coding, a discussion of whether the reform is a valid instrument, and comment on the interpretation of IV estimates of returns to schooling. The main conclusions are the following: i) a reliability analysis of the reform coding finds a lower bound reliability estimate of 0.66-0.91; ii) the reform indeed raised educational attainment, more so for boys than for girls, and iii) with careful consideration of region-specific trends, the reform can be considered a valid instrument for education.

Evaluation of Teachers for Restructured Elementary Curriculum (Grades 1 to 5)

Abstract: Elementary school curriculum in Turkish Education System has been changed several times in the republic era. After establishment of Republic of Turkey in 1923, elementary school curriculum was restructured in 1924, 1926, 1936, 1948, 1962 and 1968 (Tazebay, 2000). From 1923 to 1997 compulsory education in Turkey was five years. However, in 1997 The Minister of National Education (MONE) made a radical decision to increase compulsory education to eight years. Therefore, the primary school curriculum and the middle school curriculum were combined in the elementary school system. However, at that time those curricula were not revised and restructured. In order to unify and integrate elementary school curriculum, new elementary school curriculum (grades 1-5) was developed and introduced as a pilot study in the 2004-2005 academic year in some regions of Turkey. As a result of it, in 2005-2006 academic year the reconstructed elementary curriculum (grades 1-5) was introduced in the Turkish elementary schools. What is the reason behind curriculum innovation in Turkish Primary School System? Implementations of educational activities and school policies had been criticized in terms of test results and level of students' academic knowledge and thinking skills. Educational equity is not likely without a range of opportunities for conception and representation, opportunities that are wide enough to satisfy the diversity of talents of those who come to school (Eisner, 1994). Particularly failures of Turkish students in norm-referenced tests in national and international level were criticized. For example, according to 2003 PISA results Turkish students score were second lowest level. These results were interpreted in the way that Turkish school systems should be revised philosophically and psychologically. Students were learning based on retention instead of thinking and experiencing. In fact, The Turkish Ministry of National Education (MONE) took a radical decision to reshape curriculums rooted in constructivism and active learning. The principles of constructivist pedagogy are listed: (1) posing problems of emerging relevance to learners; (2) structuring learning around "big ideas" or primary concepts; (3) seeking and valuing students' points of view; (4) adapting curriculum to address students' suppositions; (5) assessing student learning in the context of teaching (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). On the other hand, active learning is defined to aim that is made more concrete and manageable by focusing on five student potentials that teachers have the power to influence and that directly contribute to school success. These five student abilities are dignity, energy, self-management, community, and awareness (Harmin & Toth, 2006). Psychological foundations of the new elementary curriculum are cognitivism, constructivism, and active learning. Therefore, new curriculum is regarded as a learned-centered curriculum. The following table summarizes the differences between the ex-curriculum and the new one. Teachers are the most obvious professionals who should assume evaluation roles. Teachers should be involved in cooperative curriculum work, and they should have partial responsibility for program evaluation. There are many views and procedures to evaluate the effectiveness of any curriculum. One of them is formative and summative curriculum evaluation approach. While formative evaluation often uses informal methods and frequently focuses on processes, summative evaluation uses more formal means of gathering data for analysis. Surveys given to assess teachers' reactions to the new curriculum will formally be prepared (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993). Method In order to collect data for this study, a questionnaire consisted of open-ended questions related to courses was developed and administered to 210 teachers in June 2007 because the school year ends in the middle of June in Turkey. …

Transitions in secondary education in sub-saharan Africa : equity and efficiency issues

Abstract: The main purpose of the Secondary Education in Africa (SEIA) -TRANSE study has been to identify and analyze measures that may lead to more efficient and equitable transitions in secondary education. These measures are on the one hand aiming at improving the structure and increasing the capacity of secondary education, and on the other hand to facilitate the individuals' possibilities to enter and to succeed in secondary education. Measures may be implemented at the national, regional or local level. Author especially focuses on measures like: (a) Financial (expansion of capacity, improvement of infrastructure, support to students); (b) Provisions (attractiveness and relevance, volume, location, quality and support, selection mechanisms); (c) Counseling; (d) PTA (parent teacher associations) and other local community and school relations; and (e) Reducing factors that are hindering youth to enter or to stay in schools. This paper synthesizes the findings of the country studies, highlighting the factors contributing to more equitable and efficient transitions in secondary education, and offers conclusions and recommendations.

Fostering ‘habits of reflection, independent study and free inquiry’: an analysis of the short‐lived phenomenon of General/Liberal Studies in English vocational education and training

Abstract: In 1957, 12 years after the end of World War II, the Ministry of Education issued Circular 323 to promote the development of an element of ‘liberal studies’ in courses offered by technical and further education (FE) colleges in England. This was perceived to be in some ways a peculiar or uncharacteristic development. However, it lasted over 20 years, during which time most students on courses in FE colleges participated in what were termed General or Liberal Studies classes that complemented and/or contrasted with the technical content of their vocational programmes. By the end of the 1970s, these classes had changed in character, moving away from the concept of a ‘liberal education’ towards a prescribed diet of ‘communication studies’. The steady decline in apprenticeship numbers from the late 1960s onwards accelerated in the late 1970s, resulting in a new type of student (the state‐funded ‘trainee’) into colleges whose curriculum would be prescribed by the Manpower Services Commission. This paper examin...

Education for All in India: assessing progress towards Dakar goals

Abstract: About 60 years ago India established a policy of providing free and compulsory education to all children and began transforming the elite education system inherited from its colonial past into a mass education program. The task became a race against a rapidly growing population, which outstripped the pace at which children could be enrolled and educated in schools. Notwithstanding this demographic challenge, the system grew in size and the number of children participating in school grew many-fold. The struggle to reach the long cherished goal of universal elementary education continues even today. The present paper highlights two decades of EFA progress, paying particular attention to quantitative trends since 2001, and the policies framed and the strategies implemented to achieve greater equity and quality in the provision of basic education.

Critical Religious Education and the National Framework for Religious Education in England and Wales.

Abstract: Religious Education (RE) is an entitlement for all pupils in state-funded schools in England and Wales. The parental right of withdrawal is rarely invoked. Given the multi-faith nature of British s...

What Happened to the Pisa 2000 Participants Five Years Later

Abstract: The transition from school-to-work has been a burning issue in most countries for the last decades. So far research on this topic has not been conclusive, and it is still not clear whether transition problems are just individual, linked to the type of education followed at upper-secondary level, or just a prolongation of problems arising from poor school performance during compulsory education. This paper uses a unique Swiss longitudinal data-set, which includes information on PISA 2000 scores and the pathways chosen after completing compulsory school. Descriptive results show that students in vocational training, who obtained lower PISA results, are significantly more likely to be in an inadequate employment situation two years after finishing vocational training. Further analysis shows, however, that it is the type of vocational training followed at upper-secondary level that is decisive for the success in the transition. Nevertheless, individual PISA scores have an indirect impact on the transition results, as they are an important factor explaining which pupils are more likely to get into an intellectually demanding vocational training and which ones are not.

School as 'survival game': representations of school in transition from preschool to primary school

Abstract: In children's lives the start of school is a turning point: compulsory education is their first encounter with civil duties. This important step in the process of becoming individual citizens is permeated with strong emotions and ambivalent expectations. However, the representations of school are created, established and negotiated in educational experiences preceding the start of school. In this article I explore the ways in which school is constructed in a Finnish preschool context. I build on ethnographic data generated in two preschool classes. First, I focus on how school is constructed in the social practices of teaching and in the physical space of preschool. Second, I analyse how children construct themselves as future school children and citizens by taking up available discourses and cultural practices. I argue that in official preschool, an ethos of individual survival characterises representations of school. Psychological, social and physical challenges are emphasised. Although preschool teache...

Three Perspectives on Religious Education and Education for Citizenship in English Schools, 1934-1944: Cyril Norwood, Ernest Simon and William Temple.

Abstract: In recent years, in English schools, various linkages between religious education (RE) and citizenship have been identified or proposed. Yet neither education for citizenship nor its relationship with RE is new. Evidence for this is provided by an analysis of the public discourse pertaining to these areas, which took place between 1934 and 1944, with a focus on three influential participants: Cyril Norwood, Ernest Simon and William Temple. This article highlights the extent to which (1) RE was conceived as a form of education for citizenship and (2) Christian educationists precluded secular and pedagogically progressive education for citizenship from developing in English schools. This helps to explain why Religious Instruction and worship became compulsory components of school provision in England and why education for citizenship took so long to gain a firm foothold in the curriculum.