Showing papers on "Coursework published in 1991"

Factors and influences on high school students' career choices.

Abstract: Women continue to be disproportionately underrepresented in science and engineering fields. A model for career choice is proposed that includes both the direct and indirect effects that socializers can play in determining career choices. A sample of 2213 high school seniors from nine schools in Rhode Island were surveyed about their academic and career choices and the perceived influences on those choices. Parents and teachers were perceived to be influences on career choice more often for students (both men and women) choosing careers in engineering and science than for those not choosing such careers. Pay was a more important factor in career choice for men in general, and genuine interest was a more important factor for women not choosing careers in engineering or science. However, these gender differences do not appear among students with extremely strong mathematics and science coursework backgrounds, even though there remains a marked disparity in the proportion of men to women planning careers in engineering or science. Teachers may play a particularly important role in influencing the career choice of some of these women. Equity of access and encouragement in mathematics and science is certainly a necessary, but insufficient, condition for improving the representation of women in science and engineering.

Failure of High-Ability High Schools to Deliver Academic Benefits Commensurate With Their Students’ Ability Levels

Abstract: Emphasizing a psychological perspective of social comparison processes, the author (Marsh, 1987; Marsh & Parker, 1984) found school-average ability to be negatively associated with academic self-concepts. Emphasizing a sociological perspective of school context effects, Alwin and Otto (1977) reported school-average ability to be negatively associated with educational and occupational aspirations. The present investigation brings together these two related areas of research, extends the diversity of outcomes considered, and expands the theoretical frameworks considered. In a longitudinal analysis of the ‘ ‘High School and Beyond” data, the effect of school-average ability on a comprehensive set of academic outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, self-concept, coursework selection, academic effort, school grades, educational and occupational aspirations, and college attendance) was measured in the sophomore and senior years of high school, and two years after high school graduation. The influence of schoo...

Increasing Applied Business Ethics Courses in Business School Curricula

Abstract: Business schools have a responsibility to incorporate applied business ethics courses as part of their undergraduate and MBA curriculum. The purpose of this article is to take a background and historical look at reasons for the new emphasis on ethical coursework in business schools. The article suggests a prescription for undergraduate and graduate education in applied business ethics and explores in detail the need to increase applied business ethics courses in business schools to enhance the ethical development of students.

Research in Counseling

Abstract: Research coursework has long been a recognized component of counselor preparation programs. This groundbreaking book is designed to provide graduate students with an introduction to different types of counseling research (e.g., outcomes, processes, interventions), the variables and issues of relevance to know about in regard to research, and information about implementing research. Whenever possible, the text utilizes a real-world, practical approach showing the reader how to engage in various forms of counseling research inquiry. It is divided into three sections which cover the foundations of, approaches to, and issues and innovations in this realm of study. Other areas explored include philosophy of science, ethics, and the computer and counseling research. Written by experts in the field, the chapters offer a comprehensive, thorough analysis that can have implications for theory building, model building, and counseling practice.

Antecedents of College Students' Study Deficiencies: The Relationship between Course Features and Students' Study Activities.

Abstract: Students entering institutions of higher learning have been observed to be deficient in the skills and dispositions necessary for engaging in sustained autonomous study. Evidence from investigations comparing instructional features and students' study activities across different courses and grade levels suggests that (a) particular features of courses may act to prompt or inhibit the development of proficiency at academic studying; and (b) the difficulties experienced by postsecondary students may be traced to certain discontinuties between characteristics of courses at the secondary versus post-secondary levels. These discontinuities can be described in terms of three dimensions: (a) differences in the demands made on particular study activities associated with different coursework requirements; (b) the degree to which instructors provide supportive practices designed to facilitate or sustain students' productive study activities; and (c) the prevalance of teaching strategies designed to compensate students for their study deficiencies. Using evidence from extant research on studying and results from recent investigation of secondary-level courses, the claim is made that particular patterns of instructor-implemented demands (workload, test difficulty, and latitude for self-direction) and compensations (test review practices, overlap between test items and instructor handouts, and the presence of ‘safety nets’) might account for deficiencies in the study activities of postsecondary graduates. Further, improving the level of preparedness of secondary-level graduates for the demands associated with higher education courses is discussed in terms of the need for the provision of particular support practices (e.g., feedback, clear performance expectations, and guided practice) in secondary-level courses.

Description of Knowledge Structures within a Concept-Based Curriculum Framework

Abstract: The development of declarative knowledge was examined within the parameters of movement-based curricula. Declarative knowledge represents factual or foundational knowledge frequently articulated as curriculum content. A semantic ordered tree technique was used to investigate the knowledge structures of three groups of teacher preparation subjects (novice, coursework, student teacher) and one group of elementary physical education teachers (experts). Structures were examined based on frequency and coherence criteria. ANOVA was used to examine differences between groups. Results suggested that declarative knowledge appeared to develop in complexity from novice to expert within the parameters of concept-based movement curricula. The Active Structural Networks Theory was used to interpret structural development through the accretion, tuning, and restructuring phases. Knowledge structures of the novice and coursework groups seemed to represent accretion, whereas those of student teachers and experts r...

Research Education in M.S.W. Programs

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe the content and structure of research coursework in Graduate Schools of Social Work across the nation. In addition, the differences in research course content between large and small M.S.W. Programs, and between schools with and without doctoral programs are discussed. Based on the findings, course content and teaching strategies that might be adopted to strengthen research sequences in M.S.W. programs are examined.

Professionals Who Administer Tests With Children and Youth: An International Survey

Abstract: The characteristics of professional groups who use tests in 44 countries are reviewed. Sixteen professional groups were identified. Those most likely to employ tests include school or educational psychologists, teachers, counselors, and clinical and general psychologists. Also, school or educational psychologists are most likely to use all of the 10 common types of tests (e.g., intelligence, personality, achievement). Psychologists are more likely to use foreign-developed tests, while teachers are more likely to use tests developed in their own country. The services provided by most professional groups are thought by the respondents to be adequate to superior. Most professionals learn tests through coursework. The mean years of post-secondary education among all professional groups is 5; professionals who use individually administered measures tend to have more education than those who use group tests. The correlation between perceived adequacy in test use and years of post-secondary education is signific...

A Minimum Core Curriculum for Introductory High School Biology.

Abstract: THE high school introductory biology course (often titled Biology I) is typically taught at the 10thgrade level in our country, though many schools also offer the course for more academically-oriented ninth-grade students. For a slight majority of our students, this course will be their last classroom science experience. For the remainder, it is a bridge between general science courses and advanced courses in areas such as chemistry, physics and advanced biology. Educators have debated for years about the kinds of knowledge and skills a student should gain from introductory biology. The issues of general low quality in both method and content have also been raised in several recent national committee reports such as Project 2061: Science For All Americans, developed by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS 1989) and Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in the Nation's Schools (National Research Council 1990). Historically, these discussions have been mostly content-oriented; for example, should the course emphasize cellular biology, ecology, anatomy and physiology, or evolution and diversity. Also, this course has emphasized descriptive content such as the names of organisms, parts of organisms or parts of a cell, etc. (Rosenthal 1990) as well as have most teachers' and commercial examinations for this course. Other biology teachers have been more concerned with the development of thinking or science process skills (Costenson & Lawson 1986), with the developing basic biology concepts such as interdependence, with relating biology concepts to technology and society (McInerney 1986) and with how the course is taught (Lawson 1988). Should the course be more uniform? Is it desirable, for example, that all introductory biology courses attempt to give the student some minimum experiences in the way of knowledge, skills and attitudes? Would having some minimum experiences and a common core of curriculum in the biology course help prepare students for further coursework and/or provide important life skills? McInerney (1986) has argued that, although there is currently precious little diversity in the 30 high school biology textbooks that are commercially available for this course, it would not be all that bad if the texts contained quality programs. However, he notes that the vast majority converge on mediocrity, "toward pedestrian representations of biology that are guaranteed to offend no one; toward low-level intellectual skills; and toward even more information for its own sake." Who should make the decisions as to what goes into a textbook? Increasingly, professional education associations are making recommendations regarding science curriculum. Since professional biology educators are in the best position to determine the curriculum for introductory biology, their recommendations could be formalized through professional associations such as NABT. More than a year ago, the NABT Teaching Standards Committee was asked by the NABT Board of Directors to develop some recommendations for a minimum core curriculum in the introductory high school biology course. The idea was not to dictate a specific curriculum for the year but to suggest minimum experiences that all these students should have. Nor were minimum performance standards envisioned, such as might result in a kind of standardized national examination. Rather, the concern was twofold:

Preparing Computer Literate Social Workers

Abstract: This paper brings together and adds to the current thinking on how to introduce microcomputer technology to MSW students and how to integrate this content with practice and research courses. A new framework suggested by the authors facilitates the integration of computer literacy training into an MSW curriculum. This framework conceptualizes computer literacy as a composite of both analytic and end-user administration, or research - each will have a different priority and emphasis. Computer literacy objectives are identified and discussed in each area of curriculum and numerous ideas and exmaples are provided that will assist schools of social work to plan their computer coursework.

A distance-learning approach to inservice training

Abstract: Improving the skills of personnel already teaching in elementary and secondary public schools requires that universities generate new approaches to their K-12 staff-development activities. Innovative strategies are particularly important in situations where such school personnel cannot easily travel to on-campus training sites. Under these circumstances the success of staff-training efforts will depend on the ability of universities and school corporations to establish partnerships for professional-development activities. Some areas in which collaboration is essential include identifying the needs of instructional personnel, utilizing local expertise in devising and delivering training activities, and providing on-the-job training experiences suited to the demands of the work environment. Such collaboration has been key to the At-risk Program, an inservice program for educators and other professionals working with students who display learning and behavior problems. A cooperative effort of faculty tit Indiana University and school personnel from several rural school corporations in southern Indiana, the At-risk Program's focus is on improving the educational services provided to this student population so that they can more successfully participate in classroom and school activities. Specifically, the program offers skills in restructuring the classroom and other school environments; it also demonstrates the use of collaborative-planning practices. Audiographics is Key Faculty and trainees participating in this program have found that a distance-learning approach, employing audiographic technology, is a great help. It has proven to be particularly suitable for organizing and offering the wide range of training experiences needed by local school corporations. Audiographics is a computer-based, hybrid technology that permits simultaneous transmission of voices and graphic images across telephone lines. Audiographics is highly interactive. It allows people at different locations to speak with one another, to share text and graphic images, and to annotate images displayed on monitors. Several schools can be networked together in a conference-call format with each site having full interactivity. The audiographic system used in the At-risk Program was developed from various components manufactured by AT&T. The system combines teleconferencing via speaker phones with computer-based, graphic scanning. AT&T Model 6300 DOS-based personal computers equipped with hard disks and 640K of RAM serve as the system platform. With the help of an Overview scanner and a modem, the system captures and scans graphic images, transmits images from location to location, displays and annotates images, and sequences and stores multiple images in the form of slide presentations. Scanware communication software, also from AT&T, links origination and reception sites in both point-to-point and multi-point networking configurations. Overview of the At-risk Program The At-risk Program is field-based. Via distance-learning, inservice classes are delivered to off-campus sites in rural communities located as much as 100 miles away from the university. Teams comprising two to six teachers from schools close to one another form cohort groups for the program. Coursework is designed to improve the skills of school personnel who work with at-risk students. Particular attention is given to demonstrating effective teaching practices promoting the application of these practices within a trainee's work environment, and restructuring both classroom and schoolwide settings to offer students a wider array of educational opportunities. The program provides 12 credits of graduate coursework: six credits of teaching methods and six credits of supervised practicum. Professionals enrolled in the program include grade-level and subject-area teachers, home-school coordinators, special educators and therapists. …

The Selection and Organization of Content for Secondary English: Sources for Teachers' Knowledge.

Abstract: Although factors such as district and state guidelines, textbooks, and school or departmental policies necessarily affect the nature of the English curriculum in secondary school (Barnes, Barnes, & Clarke, 1984; Hawthorne, 1988; Protherough, 1989), it is a teacher's own knowledge and beliefs concerning the teaching of English that continues to exert a major influence on the particular version of English appearing in any given classroom This central core of the knowledge of teachers of English includes their purposes for teaching English, their curricular knowledge of language and literature, and their knowledge and beliefs about students' abilities and interests - all components of teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) Yet how do beginning teachers of English develop this knowledge? And what role does professional preparation play in the construction of pedagogical content knowledge? One way to investigate the influence of professional coursework on the knowledge of beginning English teachers involves contrasting teachers with and without teacher preparation Because numerous research studies have shown that teachers attribute most of their professional knowledge to student teaching, it becomes difficult to disentangle the effects of coursework from classroom experience as sources of learning to teach On the other hand, teachers who enter teaching without professional preparation have only their own experience from which to learn, and so contrasting them with "prepared" teachers is one way to help clarify what value, if any, is added by professional coursework In this article, I contrast the knowledge and beliefs concerning one aspect of curricular knowledge, the selection and organization of content, held by six first-year English teachers, three of whom graduated from a strong program of teacher education and three of whom entered teaching without professional preparation The two groups of teachers in this study differed in their beliefs about the appropriate content for

Which General Education Curriculum Is Better: Core Curriculum or the Distributional Requirement?.

Abstract: What is the most effective pattern of undergraduate general education for a given group of students? "No curricular con cept is as central to the endeavors of the American college as general education, and none is so exasperatingly beyond the reach of consensus and understanding" (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 1977, 164) There is no uni form general education curriculum for college students today, and a debate concerning the structure and content of general education as discussed by numerous reports has continued (As sociation of American Colleges 1988; National Institute of Edu cation 1984; National Endowment for the Humanities 1984; American College Committee's Project on Redefining the Meaning and Purpose of Baccalaureate Degrees 1985) At one end of the continuum, there are advocates for a core curriculum who believe that general education should consist of prescribed coursework required of all students (Boyer & Kaplan 1977; National Endowment for the Humanities 1989) They be lieve that one curriculum is appropriate for all students Others support the distributive model which consists of "requirements designed to ensure that each student takes a minimum number of courses or credits in specified academic areas" (Levine 1978, 11) At many colleges and universities, students may choose from hundreds of courses on a wide variety of subjects to fulfill distribution requirements The advocates of the distributive re quirements believe that different curricula are necessary for dif ferent student interests and/or student abilities This paper pres ents a model and a case for examining student transcripts and

Content Area Instruction Delivered by Secondary Learning Disabilities Teachers: A National Survey.

Abstract: This article describes the results of a survey of 54 State Departments of Education (including Washington, DC; the Bureau of Indian Affairs; the Virgin Islands; and Puerto Rico) regarding the estimated extent to which secondary learning disabilities (LD) teachers provide content area instruction to their students. Data are reported in terms of (a) the degree to which students with learning disabilities in each state receive content coursework from special educators, (b) the pattern of and projected growth in such models, and (c) the perceived adequacy of teacher-training programs for preparing secondary LD teachers to provide content instruction. Results reflect substantial variability across states, as well as between and within geographic regions. The influence of geography in shaping service delivery for LD adolescents is discussed.

The Effect of Coursework Patterns, Advisement, and Course Selection on the Development of General Learned Abilities of College Graduates. Final Report.

Abstract: AUTHOR Ratcliff, James L.; And Others TITLE The Effect of Coursework Patterns, Advisement, and Course Selection on the Development of General Learned Abilities of College Graduates. Final Report. INSTITUTION Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park. Center for the Study of Higher Education. SPONS AGENCY EXXON Education Foundation, New York, N.Y.; Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE Oct 91 NOTE 115p.; For related documents, see HE 024 982 and HE 025 002. AVAILABLE FROM Pennsylvania State University, 403 South Allen Street, Suite 104, University Park, PA 16801-5202. PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143) -Tests/Evaluation Instruments (160)

Postgraduate Response To An Information Retrieval Credit Course

Abstract: Information skills instruction for research candidates bas recently been formalised as coursework at the Queensland University of Technology. Feedback solicited from participants suggests that students benefit from such coursework in a number of ways. Their perception of the value of specific content areas to their literature review and thesis presentation is favourable. A small group of students who participated in Interviews identified five ways in which the coursework assisted the research process. As Instructors continue to work with the post·graduate community it would be useful to deepen our understanding of how such instruction is perceived and the benefits which can be derived from it.

Focusing on Instructional Design to Implement a Performance-Based Teacher Training Program: The University of Oregon Model.

Abstract: This paper describes the University of Oregon model teacher preparation program, which prepares teachers to work with students who have mild handicaps. The program is based on a specific technology of instruction - Direct Instruction - with methods coursework, practicum experiences, and supervision focused on students' developing a thorough understanding of the concepts, as well as the skills necessary to implement them in the classroom. Discussion focuses on description of the core components of the program and the procedures used to teach them, with specific emphasis on the supervisor's role in teacher training.

Issues and themes: coursework and coursework assessment in the GCSE

Abstract: This paper presents the findings from a two‐year research project which focused on coursework and coursework assessment in the GCSE. Case studies of the effects of coursework were made in six schools, across three different counties and two metropolitan districts. Coursework practices were found to differ, with variation in the following: timing of coursework during the two years, where it was being completed, the type of exercises that students were doing, the amount and quality of teacher input, the availability of resources, and the extent of parental and ‘other’ help. This was acting to decrease the examination's reliability as a testing device, while at the same time increasing validity. Maturation issues were found to be a problem in the making of reliable and valid assessments. Teachers were finding it difficult to reconcile contradictory demands ‐‐ the need to initiate a formative process of assessment and learning throughout the duration of the two‐year course, and the requirement to und...

The Development and Preliminary Evaluation of Anchored Instruction Environments for Developing Mathematical and Scientific Thinking.

Abstract: Prior to college-level mathematics coursework, students are not routinely provided with the opportunity to engage in the kind of sustained mathematical thinking necessary to solve complex, multistep problems, most likely because of the difficulties that school matnemat cs teachers face in communicating problem settings and contexts that are motivating and complex, yet ultimately resolvable by students. This paper outlines the theoretical base, development, and preliminary evaluation of anchored instructional environments (videodiscs) being used with middle-grade students to improve mathematical and scientific thinking processes. Discussed are the proactive motivation due to the video-based format including an embedded data design, the de-emphasis on reading due to a familiar narrative format, the discovery-based learning inherent in student-generated problem resolution, the implicitly manageable levels of complexity, and the possibilities for connections acrcss the school curriculum. Initial preinstruction studies on 12 college students and on 12 high-achieving sixth graders induced extremely poor performance results by the sixth graders, which was not surprising both in view of the less than mediocre performance results of the college students, and in light of the realization that students cannot be expected to exhibit skills that have not yet been developed. (25 references) (JJK) **********,:******************************************X***************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************** The Development and Preliminary Evaluation of Anchored Instruction Environments for Developing Mathematical and Scientific Thinking

Development & Testing of the Cluster-Analytic Model To Identify Coursework Patterns Associated with General Learned Abilities of College Students: Clayton State College Report on Combined Samples.

Abstract: Patterns (CAM) to DOM/13NT REAM HE 024 764 Ratcliff, James L.; And Others Development & Testing of the Cluster-Analytic Model To Identify Coursework Patterns Associated with General Learned Abilities of College Students: Clayton State College Report on Combined Samples. Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park. Center for the Study of Higher Education. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. Jun 91 DER1-R-86-0016 208p.; For a related document, see HE 024 763. Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142) MF01/PC09 Plus Postage. Abstract Reasoning; Academic Achievement; *Cluster Analysis; Cognitive Development; College Curriculum; College Entrance Examinations; *Course Content; General Education; Higher Education; *Intellectual Development; *Models; *Research Methodology; *Student Development Clayton State College GA; Georgia State University; Graduate Record Examinations This report descriDoes the "Differential Coursework (DCP) Project," which developed the Cluster Analytic Model look at effects of different patterns of college coursework on the general learned abilities of students as determined by such measures as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) General Test. The model looks for correlations between courses taken and student achievement on the nine item types of thv GRE, after the predicted effect of initial Scholastic Aptitude Test scores is removed. This study looked at courses taken by two samples of students at Clayton State College (Georgia) and Georgia State University. The model's value is discussed in terms of its usefulness in assessment, curriculum development, and student advising. Among general conclusions were the following: approximately 90t of courses could be accurately grouped according to differential effects on the general learned abilities of students; the development of general learned abilities did not have an exact one-to-one relatienship with departmental categories; the development of general learned abilities was not confined to the lower division; and there was little formal monitoring and description of the curriculum in terms of general learned abilities at the college-wide or university levels. Includes a bibliography of approximately 175 items. (DB) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original docuLent. ************,**********************************************************

The Form and Substance of Secondary Resource Models: Content Area Versus Skill Instruction

Abstract: The provision of core content coursework instruction by secondary learning disability (LD) teachers has increased dramatically in recent years. This article describes the results of a study that compared the perceptions of 48 LD content teachers and 45 basic skills teachers concerning (a) their relationship with the mainstream, (b) curricular structure, (c) instructional methodology, and (d) the behavioral characteristics of their students. Differences in the teachers' judgments were evaluated by t tests. Results indicated that, despite pronounced differences in caseloads and class sizes, the two groups are very similar in how they evaluate their instructional emphases. The data also indicate that the groups differ not so much in how they teach as in how they perceive their interactions and their students' with the mainstream.

What Type of National Assessment Fits American Higher Education

Abstract: For a national program assessing college graduates to succeed, it must be institutionalized at the majority of colleges and universities in the nation The information generated must play a clear and key role in formulating state and institutional higher education policy, college matriculation C-Andards, and degree-granting decisions Such an assessment must lie particularly credible, reliable, and useful to college faculty, who play a fundamental role in communicating the importance of the assessment program to students Such confidence can only be developed through the active participation of institutions and faculty A national effort should build on the credibility and accomplisaments of existing state programs, rather than being duplicative and ancillary A two-pronged approach to development of a national assessment program seems warranted For the short term, protocols to monitor selected course syllabi and examinations can be developed A long-range goal would be adoption of a national assessment program Using the methodology and model from the Differential Coursework Patterns project, the National Center for Education Statistics could begin to determine which measures of critical thinking, communication, and problem solving best differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate learning environments for students of different ability levels A 21-item list of references is included Reviews by N Beck, J Herman, and T Marchese and B Wright of this position paper are provided (SLD) WHAT TYPE OF NATIONAL ASSESSMENT FITS AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION?

Structural Changes in the Japanese Supply/Employment Systems of Engineers: Are We Losing or Gaining?

Abstract: Major changes are occurring in the supply and employment patterns of engineers in Japan. The authors analyze a unique Japanese system of producing doctoral engineers through dissertations instead of coursework; the economic implications of the growing number of engineers employed by the finance/insurance sector, the rigidity in restructuring universities despite the emergence of new disciplines such as information science; and the utilization, assignments, and promotion potential of engineers in the automotive manufacturing industry compared to their counterparts in the United States.

Initiating Change One University's Response to Teacher Education Reform and the Education of Students with Disabilities

Abstract: This article examines the University of Utah's approach to preparing teachers of students with disabilities for change in the schools. A rationale for why teachers must understand the change process is presented in the context of both government-mandated and school-based reform movements. The discussion describes the basic components of what teacher candidates examine in coursework and field experiences at the University of Utah in understanding the process of change. These include professional roles, socio-technical systems analysis, cultural perspective, and ongoing technical support.

Criteria and Selection of Cooperating Teachers Involved in Alternative Teacher Education Programs.

Abstract: This paper examines the teacher education reforms of the 1980's but focuses on an area which has remained constant and unchanged, specifically the criteria for and selection of cooperating teachers. Two examples of reform programs in Oregon are discussed. Both programs represent a professional development center concept model with collaborative arrangements between universities and school districts, as described in reform literature. A requi7ement for preservice teachers is a year-long internship with a gradual progression from observation to full teaching responsibility, and coursework concurrent with field experiences which integrate theory and practice. Criteria for the selection of cooperating teachers include 3 years of teaching experience, demonstrated competence in teaching, ability to work cooperatively with others, and preparation in supervising and evaluating preservice teachers and their experiences. The selection process includes application with written statements of intent by the potential mentor, recommendations from teacher peers, and review and selection by a panel representing university faculty, school district administrators, and teachers. (LL) *******************,N*************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * ***********************************************************************