Showing papers on "Habitat destruction published in 1994"

Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat: a review

Abstract: Habitat fragmentation implies a loss of habitat, reduced patch size and an increasing distance between patches, but also an increase of new habitat. Simulations of patterns and geometry of landscapes with decreasing proportion of the suitable habitat give rise to the prediction that the effect of habitat fragmentation on e.g. population size of a species would be primarily through habitat loss in landscape with a high proportion of suitable habitat. However, ast the proportion of suitable habitat

Habitat destruction and the extinction debt

Abstract: HABITAT destruction is the major cause of species extinctions1–3. Dominant species often are considered to be free of this threat because they are abundant in the undisturbed fragments that remain after destruction. Here we describe a model that explains multispecies coexistence in patchy habitats4 and which predicts that their abundance may be fleeting. Even moderate habitat destruction is predicted to cause time-delayed but deterministic extinction of the dominant competitor in remnant patches. Further species are predicted to become extinct, in order from the best to the poorest competitors, as habitat destruction increases. More-over, the more fragmented a habitat already is, the greater is the number of extinctions caused by added destruction. Because such extinctions occur generations after fragmentation, they represent a debt—a future ecological cost of current habitat destruction.

Decline of the Chesapeake Bay oyster population: a century of habitat destruction and overfishing

Abstract: The oyster population in the Maryland portion ot Chesapeake Bay, USA, has declined by more than 50-Iold since the early part of this century. The paper presents evidence that the mechanical destruction of habitat and stock over fishing have been important factors in the decline, even thouqh it is commonly thought that 'water quality' and, more recently, oyster diseases are critical. Quantitative analyses show that the long-term decline 01 oysters largely resuIts from habitat loss associated with intense fishing pressure early in this century and stock over fishing from early in the century throuqh recent limes. Furthermore, the major ecological effects on Chesapeake Bay occurred weIl betore World War II, before industrialization and the reported prevalence of disease. To effect the recovery of the ailing Chesapeake Bay oyster stock, a 4-point management strategy is proposed.

Biodiversity on Oceanic Islands: Its Origin and Extinction1

Abstract: SYNOPSIS. The isolation and small size of oceanic islands make them attractive models for studies of diversification; the sensitivity of their biota makes them important subjects for studies of extinction. I explore the origin of island biotas through dispersal and in situ diversification, and examine the fate of these biotas since human contact. Island biotas start out depauperate and disharmonic, facilitating the survival of relict taxa and stimulating adaptive radiations. The often highly restricted range and small population size of insular species, together with their limited diversity of defenses, make island biotas particularly vulnerable to extinction, largely through habitat loss or interactions with introduced species.

Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity: A Summary

Abstract: In light of past and projected global changes in land use and climate, there has been increasing concern about the loss of genetic diversity in fragmented populations, the loss of species diversity through habitat destruction, and the role of landscape diversity in regional processes. However, it is unclear exactly how and why a change in biodiversity might alter the functioning of ecosystems, i.e., the transfer of carbon, water, and nutrients, and the maintenance of ecosystem stability. One reason for this is that we know too little about the population biology and functional properties of most species. Furthermore, we lack a full understanding about the mechanisms which underlie the self-assembly and organization of species in communities and about the effects of variations in the arrangement of components in such complex systems.

Temperate Coastal Marine Communities: Biodiversity and Threats

Abstract: SYNOPSIS. Temperate marine ecosystems are some of the most productive and diverse of all ecosystems. Over the past century the resources contained within these communities have been subjected to gross mismanagement. They are continually subjected to threats from multiple stresses imposed mostly by human activities, predominantly as a result of increased population growth. The most significant categories of threats derive from: (1) habitat loss and degradation, (2) pollution from numerous sources including sewage, pesticides, pulp mills, thermal effluents, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals, oil and radionuclides, (3) overexploitation, (4) species introductions, (5) global climate change, (6) misguided human perceptions and (7) legal complexities. Furthermore, because subtidal and offshore coastal marine communities are not easily observed, their deterioration often goes mostly unnoticed. Impacts from stresses on coastal marine communities are manifested at the individual species level, but magnify in effect throughout the entire ecosystem because of complex inter-connected relationships between species at different trophic levels, including interactions such as predation, competition and mutualism. Therefore, one missing species or group of species that may be affected by some particular local pollutant, for example, may have unpredictable direct or indirect consequences through secondary effects on the ecosystem, possibly leading to the loss of a few to many species. Rather than striving to maintain some specific level of diversity, we should endeavor to understand the basic ecological processes that control populations, communities and ecosystems so we can best predict what kinds of stresses will cause the most serious alterations to the system and avoid them. In addition, we should be conservative about protecting systems even before we understand the processes fully.

Identifying Extinction Threats: Global Analyses of the Distribution of Biodiversity and the Expansion of the Human Enterprise

Abstract: Relatively pristine habitats around the world are being lost at unprecedented rates (Melillo et al. 1985, Skole and Tucker 1993) as an expanding human population converts them to agriculture, forestry, and urban centers (Hall 1978, Vitousek et al. 1986). As these habitats are altered, untold numbers of species are disappearing before they have been recognized, much less studied (Wilson 1989), and the functioning of entire ecosystems is threatened. This loss of biodiversity, at the very time when the value of biotic resources is becoming widely recognized (Malone 1992), has made it strikingly clear that current strategies for conservation are failing dismally (Ehrlich 1992, Ehrlich and Wilson 1991).

Aquaculture and biodiversity.

Abstract: The impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are rarely positive, sometimes neutral, but usually negative to some degree. Impacts arise from the consumption of resources, such as land (or space), water, seed and feed, their transformation into products valued by society and the production of wastes (uneaten food, faecal and urinary products, chemotheraputants, microorganisms and parasites and feral farmed organisms). Negative impacts may be direct, through the introduction of exotic genetic material into the environment for example, or indirect through loss of habitat and niche space. It is concluded that the key issues in deciding the acceptability of this method of food production are scale, intensity of resource use, and net production of wastes. It is also argued that protection of biodiversity is essential from the aquaculturist's point of view.

Community diversity and succession: the roles of competition, dispersal, and habitat modification.

Abstract: The rapid expansion of human activities is causing unprecedented changes in the structure, dynamics, and diversity of the earth’s ecosystems (e.g., Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981; Wilson 1988; Ehrlich and Wilson 1991). Although change is the rule in nature, the present speed of habitat destruction and global climatic change are unlikely to have occurred ever during the 400 million years since land plants evolved (e.g., Huntly 1991). Thus, there is little historical information that can fully prepare us for the impacts of anthropogenic global change. An understanding of the ways in which communities respond to perturbations (e.g., see Korner, ) and of the mechanisms that maintain biodiversity within communities may provide some insights into the process, as may historical information. Conservation of biodiversity in the face of global change requires a much fuller knowledge of the forces that maintain diversity.

A biogeographical hypothesis on the effects of human caused landscape changes on the forest bird communities of Europe and North America

Abstract: Ultimate factors underlying forest bird responses to human caused landscape changes are examined by comparing European and North American avifaunas, their history, taxonomic composition, and present day characteristic. Taxonomically, resident species show stronger affinities between the two continents than migrant birds. European avifauna is by and large of Palaeartic origin with only little Afrotropical or New World influence. By contrast, both Palaearctic and tropical elements are prominent in North American bird fauna. The taxonomical differences can be traced back to the Plio Pleistocene history, and geographical configuration of the continental land masses. Human impact has also been of earlier origin and more drastic to European than to North American birds. The contemporary avifaunas of the two continents can be roughly grouped into three categories according to 'sensitivity' to human induced landscape changes. The western Palaearctic species group is not particularly sensitive to human impact due to preadaptations to the loss of habitats. For the American species group, the human induced framentation and habitat loss is an unpreceeded event which they have not had possibilities during their Pleistocene history to evolve adaptations to. The Siberian or Siberian-Canadian group of species is adapted to dynamic boreal landscapes but not to large-scale human caused alterations of habitats. Future popula tion trends for the three species groups are outlined given the present trends in land use practices.

Energy Use and Biodiversity Loss

Abstract: This paper evaluates the proposition that rates of population and species extinction can be assessed by using an indirect measure: total consumption of energy (industrial plus traditional) by man. This proposition rests on three assumptions. First, the rate of extinction is proportional to the rate of habitat destruction because most organisms are adapted to rather limited environments. Second, the rate of habitat destruction is correlated with the scale of human enterprise: the product of the number of people, average consumption, and the environmental damage done by the technologies used to supply each unit of consumption. Third, average energy can be used as a surrogate for the latter two factors, consumption x technology. Total energy use is therefore an indicator of trends in extinction rates, and thus could be used to estimate the rates themselves. I examine these premises and conclude that they are sufficiently well supported for biologists to use total energy consumption as an index of global extinction rates. That index, however, is not useful politically because the assumptions upon which it is based are not understood by decision makers and the general public.

Recent past and future extinctions in birds

Abstract: Most recent extinctions of birds have been caused by habitat loss or by human or introduced predators and have been on islands. Local losses of species in habitat patches are particularly prevalent amongst various specialist feeders and species occurring in small numbers. Future candidates for global extinction are hard to pick from lists of species with indicators of susceptibility. Population modelling should help, but data are generally lacking. A review of threatened birds in the Americas shows that declines and rarity are often inferred from habitat loss and infrequent records, in the absence of quantitative data. The most threatened species often occur in very few places, where their future is likely to be determined. Safeguarding protected areas within centres of endemism offers a pragmatic response for a high proportion of globally threatened birds and probably other taxa as well.

Black bear habitat use in relation to food availability in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas

Abstract: A black bear (Ursus americanus) food value index (FVI) was developed and calculated for forest cover type classifications on Ozark Mountain (White Rock) and Ouachita Mountain (Dry Creek) study areas in western Arkansas. FVIs are estimates of bear food production capabilities of the major forest cover types and were calculated using percent cover, mean fruit production scorings, and the dietary percentage of each major plant food species as variables. Goodness-of-fit analyses were used to determine use of forest cover types by 23 radio-collared female bears. Habitat selection by forest cover type was not detected on White Rock but was detected on Dry Creek. Use of habitats on Dry Creek appeared to be related to food production with the exception of regeneration areas, which were used less than expected but had a high FVI ranking. In general, pine cover types had low FVI rankings and were used less than expected by bears. Forest management implications are discussed. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9(1):309-318 Black bear populations in the eastern United States are much reduced, largely due to land conversion that resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation (Maehr 1984). Schoen (1990) stated that "part of our task in managing bear habitats is to identify what habitats are important to bears and determine the optimal or sometimes minimal habitat mix necessary for maintaining populations at desired or viable population levels." Although food is only one component of an organism's habitat requirements, it is especially important for bears because of their large size and relatively inefficient digestive system (Pritchard and Robbins 1990). It is important to determine what foods are most critical to bears and the forest management practices that produce those foods. Although a number of habitat use studies have been conducted on black bears in North America (Beeman and Pelton 1977, Warburton 1984, Brody and Pelton 1989, Unsworth et al. 1989, Hellgren etal. 1991), few studies have attempted to link habitat use with food availability (Kansas and Raine 1990, Noyce and Coy 1990). It is not only important to determine the habitats that are selected for by bears, but it is perhaps more important to determine why those habitats are selected. The objective of this study was to quantify food production and relative value assoeiated with a variety of silvicultural practices and forest cover types and compare that to black bear habitat use for 2 study areas in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas. This study was funded under provisions of the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (PittmanRobertson Act), administered by the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission. Additional funding was provided by the Ozark National Forest (NF), the Arkansas Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, and Environmental Systems Company, Inc. C.J. Amlaner, P.S. Gipson, M.R. Pelton, and T.B. Wigley provided advice on study design and, along with D.L. Garshelis, R.L. Kirkpatrick, and T.E. Martin, helped edit earlier manuscripts. Special thanks go to graduate student S.G. Hayes and a number of technicians for their assistance in the field. Appreciation is also extended to W.F. Limp, J.A. Farley, and J.J. Lockhart from the Arkansas Archaeological Survey for their valuable assistance in using the Geographic Information System (GIS).

Dynamics of the rocky intertidal zone with remarks on generalization in ecology

Abstract: Ecological systems at both population and community scales are recognized increasingly as being more open than previously thought. In coastal marine systems, physical oceanographic processes affecting larval stages are as, or more important than, biological interactions affecting adults. In terrestrial systems, the membership in ecological communities is controlled by geologic transport processes as much as by species interactions. Hence ecological science has become increasingly an earth science, and less a biological science. The differences between marine and terrestrial ecosystems imply that terrestrial systems are more localized functionally than marine systems; more likely to suffer extinction from habitat loss; and less likely to recover upon removal of stress. In addition, damage to a marine system is more likely to be felt further from the source of stress than it would in a terrestrial system. Finally, harvesting strategies at sea should react to continuous environmental monitoring whereas on land, demographically based strategies of harvest can suffice.

Species extinctions, endangerment and captive breeding

Abstract: During the last four hundred years some 490 described species of animal are known to have become extinct. In this chapter the patterns of animal extinction are analysed by taxonomic group, against time, and between islands and continental land masses. From species—area curves based upon extrapolation of the rate of habitat loss (particularly tropical forests) estimates have been produced of the future rates of species extinctions. These estimates vary considerably from less than 5% of all animal species between 1985 and the year 2025 to more than 25% if rates of forest clearance accelerate (WCMC, 1992).

Implications of altitudinal migration for conservation strategies to protect tropical biodiversity: a case study of the Resplendent Quetzal Pharomacrus mocinno at Monteverde, Costa Rica

Abstract: We documented habitat use by the Resplendent Quetzal Pharomacrus mocinno , a large frugivorous bird that breeds in cloud-forests in the highlands of Central America, to assess the adequacy of protection afforded to regional biodiversity by the Monteverde reserve complex, a protected natural area that includes most of the highland forests of the Tilaran mountain range in western Costa Rica. Our results demonstrated that this relatively large (20,000 ha) protected natural area does not adequately protect the area's biodiversity. Through the use of radio-telemetry, we identified the areas on the Pacific slopes that are most critical to altirudinally migrating Quetzals. These forest patches are subject to deforestation and degradation and are rapidly becoming further isolated from other remaining forest. The possibility of the local extirpation of the Quetzal, through continued habitat loss on the Pacific slopes, presents an unusual dilemma for the region because the species is the major attraction for the Ideal tourist industry which now includes over 80 businesses and annually generates over US$5 million in local revenue. Therefore, its extirpation would seriously affect regional economic stability. In order to protect the Monteverde Quetzal population, we propose a regional conservation plan that depends on participation of local landowners to protect their remaining forest fragments and allows for the development of corridors to connect critical habitats as the focus of a regional conservation effort. While the ecological significance of the structure of corridors per se, versus other possible formats, is still being debated, we have selected the corridor format primarily because it is relatively easy for landowners to grasp the concept and the necessity for continuity of the corridor network. This recognition provides an important incentive for participation across property boundaries, promoting cooperation in a group effort rather than as isolated actions. Success of this cooperative plan will provide an example for grass-roots participation in buffer-zone management strategies elsewhere in the Neotropics.

Significance of Habitat and Stock Re‐Testing for Enhancement of Natural Fisheries: Experimental Analyses with Queen Conch Strombus gigas

Abstract: The queen conch Strombus gigas is a large, commercially important gastropod mollusc native to the Caribbean region that has become severely depleted because of overfishing and habitat destruction. Over the last 10 yr attempts have been made to rehabilitate conch stocks through releases of hatchery-reared stocks, but successes have been few. Some of the reasons for high mortality in hatchery-reared conch are elucidated by recent experiments conducted at Lee Stocking Island in the central Bahamas. Field experiments with juvenile queen conch indicate that sites with similar depths, sediments, and macrophyte cover do not provide equivalent food and shelter for conch. Transplants of conch were successful only in sites known to be historically significant as nursery grounds. While small-scale transplants can be used to screen potential outplant sites, only comprehensive understanding of the habitat requirements, behavior, feeding ecology, and predator-prey relationships will lead to long-term enhancement of fishery stocks. Differences in morphology, behavior, and habitat utilization between wild and hatchery-reared stocks also had significant effects on the survivorship and growth of outplanted stock. Therefore, hatcheries must develop culture methods that do not reduce the natural fitness of wild stock. Successful enhancement of natural fisheries through outplanting of hatchery-reared stocks depends upon: 1) development of hatchery animals sufficiently well adapted to survive in the field; and 2) release of the stock in suitable habitats at the optimal time. Close linkage between laboratory and field research, and hatchery operators will he necessary for the ultimate success of stock enhancement efforts.

Ecology of an elusive endemic shrub, Pittosporum obcordatum Raoul

Abstract: The ecology of Pittosporum obcordatum Raoul (heart-leaved kohuhu), an endemic shrub or small tree, was investigated to explain its sporadic distribution. The species is characteristically found on lowland (<500 m a.s.l.) river flats where local climates have frequent summer drought and winter frost, and soils are waterlogged in winter. Population structures reveal no recent regeneration at some sites while at others there is recruitment in the smaller height classes. This pattern reflects mainly the frequency and intensity of browsing by domestic stock. The primary reason for the species' uncommonness appears to be strict habitat specificity combined with habitat destruction and fragmentation. Factors potentially contributing to its vulnerability include slow relative growth rate, restricted seed dispersal, unbalanced population sex ratios, and inability of seedlings and small juveniles to survive heavy browsing.

Africa's primates in 1992: Conservation issues and options

Abstract: There are about 60 species of African primates, and over 50% of these are generally considered to be vulnerable to extinction. Planning for the conservation of these primates, and the objective assessment of the degree of endangerment faced by different species and subspecies is hampered, however, by poorly resolved taxonomy and inadequate data on geographic distributions, ecology, and population biology. The African primate species at most imminent risk of extinction may be Sclater's guenon, threatened by forest destruction and hunting in an area of Nigeria with a very dense human population. The most endangered African subspecies may be Bouvier's red colobus, whose continued existence in Congo is uncertain. The taxonomic position of each of these monkeys is debated. Their predicaments illustrate some general phenomena: almost all threatened African primates are forest dwellers; habitat destruction and/or hunting are the major threats to the survival of forest primates; endangerment is the result of an interaction of external threats with features intrinsic to particular primates. The African primates most widely used in biomedical research are savanna-zone species that are not generally endangered at present, although there are disturbingly high levels of trapping in certain countries. Ideally, all Africa's primates would be protected by a network of large reserves, but in a few cases such a conservation strategy may not be a viable option; population manipulations may become important management tools, and these manipulations may be aided by new techniques developed by reproductive biologists. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Pollution, Habitat Destruction, and Biodiversity in Poland

Abstract: In the past 50 years, Poland has experienced unprecedented deterioration of the environment and loss of biodiversity. Emissions of toxic gases, such as SO2, have reached 3 to 4 million tons annually, widely affecting flora, fauna, and human health. Almost all surface waters are heavily polluted. More than 75% of the water in the Vistula, Poland's largest river, is unsuitable even for industrial use. Environmental pollution, habitat loss and fragmentation, and industrialization of agricultural lands and forests have contributed to the loss of biodiversity. As many as 2500 plant species may be endangered (≈25% of all species) and approximately 228 (≈2%) have been extirpated from Poland. The largest losses of flora and fauna have occurred in wetland ecosystems. Among vertebrate species, 15 (≈2%) have been lost and more than 210 (another 30%) are endangered. Given the current economic uncertainty, it is difficult to predict future trends in pollutant emissions and their effects on Poland's biological diversity.

Distribution of Black Bears in the Southeastern Coastal Plain

Abstract: Black bear (Ursus americanus) distribution and habitat quantities were estimated for the Coastal Plain region of the southeastern United States. Bears are imperiled in the southeastern Coastal Plain primarily because of habitat loss. Accordingly, this paper focuses on bear habitat in the region. Resident bear popu- lations are scattered across the Coastal Plain. They occupy an estimated 67,791 km2. The current distribution, a consequence of habitat loss, represents a 93% range reduction from historic levels. The greatest quantity of habitat supporting resident populations occurs in Florida (30,773 km2) and North Carolina (18,700 km2). Most (76%) bear habitat in the Coastal Plain is privately owned. Six of the 10 states in the region contain large blocks of forested areas (>200 km2) that are without bears; these are potential stocking sites. The largest block of potential range occurs in eastern Texas. Management implications of the distribution are discussed.

Landscape-Level Processes and Wetland Conservation in the Southern Appalachian Mountains

Abstract: The function of wetland ecosystems is not independent of the landscapes in which they are embedded. They have strong physical and biotic linkages to the surrounding landscape. Therefore, incorporating a broad-scale perspective in our study of wetland ecology will promote our understanding of these habitats in the Southern Appalachians. Changes in the surrounding landscape will likely affect wetlands. Broad-scale changes that are likely to affect wetlands include: 1) climate change, 2) land use and land cover change, 3) water and air-borne pollution, 4) a shift in disturbance/recovery regimes, and 5) habitat loss and fragmentation. Changes in climate and land cover can affect the hydrology of the landscape and, therefore, the water balance of wetlands. Excessive nutrients and toxin transported by air and water to wetlands can disrupt natural patterns of nutrient cycling. Periodic disturbances, like flooding in riparian zones, is required to maintain some wetlands. A change in disturbance regimes, such as an increase in fire frequency, could alter species composition and nutrient cycles in certain wetlands. Many plant and animal species that found in small, isolated wetlands have populations that are dependent on complementary habitats found in the surrounding landscape. Loss or fragmentation of these complementary habitats could result in the collapse of wetland populations.

Laying the foundation for a comprehensive program of restoration for wildlife habitat in a riparian floodplain

Abstract: We analyzed the past and current distribution and abundance of vegetation and wildlife to develop a wildlife habitat restoration plan for the Sweetwater Regional Park, San Diego County, California. Overall, there has been a substantial loss of native amphibians and reptiles, including four amphibians, three lizards, and 11 snake species. The small-mammal community was depauperate and dominated by the exotic house mouse (Mus musculus) and the native western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis). It appeared that either house mice are exerting a negative influence on most native species or that they are responding positively to habitat degradation. There has apparently been a net loss of 13 mammal species, including nine insectivores and rodents, a rabbit, and three large mammals. Willow (Salix) cover and density and cottonwoods (Populus fremontii) had the highest number of positive correlations with bird abundance. There has been an overall net loss of 12 breeding bird species; this includes an absolute loss of 18 species and a gain of six species. A restoration plan is described that provides for creation and maintenance of willow riparian, riparian woodland, and coastal sage scrub vegetation types; guides for separation of human activities and wildlife habitats; and management of feral and exotic species of plants and animals.

The decline of the wild water buffalo in north-east India

Abstract: The Asiatic wild buffalo Bubalus bubalis was widely distributed in the river systems of south and South East Asia, but habitat destruction, hunting and interbreeding with domestic water buffalo have resulted in only relict wild populations remaining. Unless protection measures are intensified, the species could disappear in India within a few decades.

Two new Brazilian primates discovered, endangered

Abstract: Field studies at distant sites in Brazilian Amazonia have brought to light two new species of primate, the black-headed marmoset Callithrix nigriceps and the Ka'apor capuchin Cebus kaapori. Little is known about either species, although both appear to have small geographical ranges in regions with relatively high human densities and where habitat-degrading activities, such as logging and mining, have been intensifying over the past two decades. These discoveries highlight the uncertain nature of our understanding of primate diversity in what is probably the biologically richest nation on earth. They also underline the urgent need for more detailed information from many areas, especially southern Amazonia, where habitat destruction is increasing.

Fungal species diversity and forest ecosystem functioning in the Netherlands.

Abstract: Fungi constitute an important component in ecosystems, both in terms of species richness and in functional respects. However, the magnitude of fungal biodiversity is not well-known. A conservative estimate of the magnitude of fungal biodiversity by Hawksworth (1991) suggests that less than 5% of the species have been described. Even in comparatively well-investigated countries as the Netherlands the fungal biodiversity can only be roughly estimated. It is possible that this lack of fundamental knowledge of fungal species diversity has contributed to a general lack of awareness of the functional importance of fungal biodiversity in ecosystems. The growing interest in biodiversity, because of concern over extinction of species by habitat destruction and global change, has led to increased awareness of the functional importance of fungi. Ehrenfeld (1988) asked “Before we fully appreciated the vital role that mycorrhizal symbiosis plays in the lives of many plants,what kind of value would we have assigned to the tiny, threadlike fungi in the soil that make those relationships possible?” However, the below-ground connection, in which fungi play a very important role, is still not always sufficiently appreciated, as e.g. in the Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (Lubchenko et al., 1991).