Showing papers on "Modernization theory published in 1992"

Sociology, environment, and modernity: Ecological modernization as a theory of social change

Abstract: To minimize or at least substantially reduce damage to the natural resource sustenance‐base we urgently need institutional reform within modern society. Environmental sociologists have different views as to which institutional traits can be held primarily responsible for the environmental crisis. Examples include its capitalistic or industrial character as well as the complex, highly administrated technological system of modern society. We discuss these matters in the context of the theory of “ecological modernization”; as developed by the German sociologist Joseph Huber, among others. To analyze the institutional reforms required for bringing human interaction with the sustenance‐base under rational ecological control, however, the theory needs to be substantially modified and complemented in several respects. However, restructuring the processes of production and consumption is only half the story. The change to ecologically sound patterns of production and consumption is limited by the dimensi...

China - A New History

Abstract: Bringing to bear 60 years of research, travel, and teaching, Fairbank weaves a detailed history that reaches from China's neolithic days to its troubled present. He depicts a country ever-changing and yet constant in its effort to achieve a cohesive identity, an enormous and enormously complex nation perpetually balancing between the imperatives of force and the power of ideas. Here are the Chinese autocrats in their various times and guises, maintaining Confucian civility and order through - paradoxically - the perpetual threat of irrational imperial violence. Here is the intellectual class, revered for its wisdom and counsel and yet - as events from the Cultural Revolution to the massacre in Tiananmen Square demonstrate - eminently expendable. And here are China's farmers engaged in a never-ending attempt to tame their countryside only to face repeated famine as China's agrarian-based economy fails to develop. At the centre of all stands the Chinese family, until recently the model for both obedience and tyranny in society at large. Fairbank traces the growth of a civilization that could embrace so many contradictions and disruptions and yet retain a strong sense of its identity. Following China's ambivalent relations with the West and with the forces of modernization, he identifies, even in the great leap forward signaled by the Communist Revolution, the assumptions that have informed Chinese society for thousands of years. From the influences of Buddhism through the flowering of Song China to the reforms of Deng Xiaoping, this illustrated history unfolds.

Managing sustainable development

Abstract: The authors of this book propose a means to organize environmental management that can best address the challenges posed by sustainable development. Industrialism has spread throughout the world resulting in considerable inequalities between high income and low income regions. Ever-growing capitalism puts tremendous global stress on the environment suggesting limits to modernity. Neither socialist centralized planning nor liberal capitalism can appropriately address regional continental and global environmental crises. The traditional analytic scientific approach of analyzing components of ecosystems does not have the answer to environmental problems. Flexible nonhierarchical partnerships between various interests called action-centered networks are an important innovation. Both developing and developed countries at all levels can implement such networks. They encourage policy integration and consensus required to achieve the structural change in industrial and industrializing societies. Examples of existing networks include local Groundwork Trusts in the UK the California Growth Management Consensus Project Innovations in Development for Environmental Action (IDEA) in 7 developing countries at the regional/fluvial level and the Netherlands National Environment Policy Plan. What is needed is a multisector action-centered network for environmental management at the international level. Networks already exist linking nongovernmental organizations from around the world. The Business Council for Sustainable Development fosters discussions in business on environmental issues. Many people favor a Marshall Plan which would transfer money and technology from market-economy countries to former communist countries and developing countries to help achieve sustainable development. It also needs a transfer of skills in environmental management and medication.

The Penguin History of Latin America

Abstract: Now fully updated to 2009, this acclaimed history of Latin America tells its turbulent story from Columbus to Chavez. Beginning with the Spanish and Portugese conquests of the New World, it takes in centuries of upheaval, revolution and modernization up to the present day, looking in detail at Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Chile and Cuba, and gives an overview of the cultural developments that have made Latin America a source of fascination for the world. 'A first-rate work of history ...His cool, scholarly gaze and synthesizing intelligence demystify a part of the world peculiarly prone to myth-making ...This book covers an enormous amount of ground, geographically and culturally' - Tony Gould, "Independent on Sunday".

Trade Strategy and the Dependency Hypothesis: A Comparison of Policy, Foreign Investment, and Economic Growth in Latin America and East Asia

Abstract: The role of state policy in the industrialization of Third World nations has become the subject of increasing interest in recent years. In the past, the debate over economic development has either focused on the traditional modernization approach' or the dependency theory of underdevelopment.2 Dependency theorists base their model of development on the belief that foreign investment from core countries is harmful to developing nations' long-term economic growth. Economic relationships between the core and the periphery are structurally detrimental for the latter because of the inherent dynamics of international capitalism. Yet, despite the claims of dependency theory, the recent experience of the East Asian newly industrialized countries suggests a wider range of development possibilities which include government policies specifically designed to attract foreign investment. These countries appear to have structured their domestic economies in order to mitigate the pernicious effects of dependent relationships with core countries. This raises new questions about the development process and the role of policy and foreign investment in the economic transactions between core and peripheral countries. Dependency theory, a neo-Marxist predecessor of world-systems research, claims that First World nations become wealthy by extracting surplus labor and resources from the Third World. Capitalism perpetuates a global division of labor which causes the distortion of developing countries' domestic economies, declining growth, and increased income inequality.3 Those countries on the periphery cannot become fully modernized as long as they remain in the capitalist world

The "Wenzhou Model" of Development and China's Modernization

Abstract: One of the most significant aspects of the post-Mao economic and social development of China was the rise of many entrepreneurial rural communities, especially those along the eastern coast. Some of these had been promoted by Chinese journalists and scholars as "models" (moshi) for emulation by other rural communities.1 The term "model" meant that a community's social and economic program best represented the developmental strategy of the current national leadership. Accordingly, the post-1980 "models" had, in different ways, achieved the following: a rapid rise in personal income, use of the profit motive and the market mechanism, specialization, flexible patterns of ownership, and reliance on indigenous resources. This article deals with one of the most famous "models": Wenzhou municipality in Zhejiang Province. One virtue of any detailed study of a subsociety such as the present one in Wenzhou lies in depicting the nature of the social and cultural context within which development inevitably has to take place. Another possible gain of a study like this is to see Wenzhou's development as a microcosm of Chinese modernization. Important aspects and dilemmas of China's political and economic development may be thrown into relief by an analysis of Wenzhou.

Contemporary research on social democracy

Abstract: This review examines the comparative, empirical literature that concerns the impact of social democracy on welfare state development and on economic performance. The theoretical basis of this research lies in reformist social democratic ideology which, in turn, is given substantial empirical confirmation in the sense that the balance of political power influences outcomes. The case against traditional modernization theory and other critiques is found to be strong, especially when the social democratic effect combines strong left parties with trade unions. The credibility of the social democratic model is particularly strong if we consider its consistent validation in cross-sectional as well as time-series analyses. It is, however, doubtful whether the “social democratic” thesis is applicable outside the framework of the advanced industrial democracies.

Racial and Ethnic Conflicts: A Global Perspective

Abstract: Race and ethnicity provide the most striking example of a general failure among experts to anticipate social developments in varying types of societies. Until recently, there was considerable consensus among many Marxist and non-Marxist scholars that ethnicity reflected the conditions of traditional society, in which people lived in small communities isolated from one another and in which mass communications and transportation were limited. Many expected that industrialization, urbanization, and the spread of education would reduce ethnic consciousness, and that universalism would replace particularism. Marxists were certain that socialism would mean the end of the ethnic tension and consciousness that existed in pre-socialist societies. Non-Marxists sociologists in western countries assumed that industialization and modernization would do the same. Assimilation of minorities into a large integrated whole was viewed as the inevitable future.

The subject of modernity

Abstract: Acknowledgments Introduction 1. The disenchantment of the world 2. The theory of the novel and the autonomy of art 3. Secularization and modernization 4. The subject and the state 5. Subjective desire 6. Possibilities of post-modernism Notes.

Geographical inquiry and American historical problems

Abstract: Introduction: the practice of geographical history 1. The ecological causes of the Virginia mortality crisis, 1607-1624 2. Why the Puritans settled in New England: the problematic nature of English colonization in North America, 1580-1700 3. Why tobacco stunted the growth of towns and wheat built them into small cities: urbanization south of the Mason-Dixon line, 1650-1790 4. Boston, vanguard of the American Revolution 5. The industrial Revolution as a response to cheap labor and agricultural seasonality, 1790-1860: a reexamination of the Habakkuk thesis 6. To enslave or not to enslave: crop seasonality, labor choice, and the urgency of the Civil War 7. The myth of the southern soil miner|: macrohistory, agricultural innovation, and environmental change 8. A tale of two cities: the ecological basis of the threefold population differential in the Chicago and mobile urban systems, circa 1860 9. The split geographical personality of Americna labor: labor power and modernization in the Gilded Age 10. The last great chance for an American working class: spatial lessons of the general strike and the Haymarket riot of early May 1886 11. Spoiling the 'roast beef and apple pie' version of American exceptionalism: the agricultural-geographic origins of working-class division and the failure of American socialism 12. The periodic structure of the American past: rhythms, phases, and geograph conditions Index.

Cultural Geography and Chinese Ethnic Tourism

Abstract: Much has been written about the impact of modernization on the non-Western world. A classic debate has typically argued the loss of indigenous cultural traditions to the expansion of modernism. Cultural geography has long emphasized this normative evaluation, betraying an unproblematic approach to the assumptions of 19th-century naturalist social theory. This approach tends to romanticize place-based cultural traditions, condemning them as "residuals of authenticity" to be preserved, marketed, and consumed in a purposefully unmodern form. This study analyzes ethnic tourism development in China's southwest periphery. Here, cultural forces are found interacting with a changing political economy in ways which reveal the dynamic and often very political nature of cultural construction. It more importantly reveals that the cultural politics of tourism development in China necessitate a less idealized and more socially encompassing approach to culture than that generally displayed in geography.

The modernisation of Russian motherhood, 1917–1937

Abstract: up and overtaking the West meant above all achieving higher levels of production, but it was also recognised that before the workers and peasants could transform the economy they themselves must be transformed: the new Soviet Man must be neat and efficient, literate and cultured, hygienic and healthy. The health of the next generation, of infants and young children, had from early in the 19th century been a matter for national concern, and campaigns for modern mothering dated from that era. Enlightenment propaganda aimed to inculcate the ideas of modern medicine on pregnancy, childbirth and infant care current across the industrialising world from Paris to New York and Sydney. In post-revolutionary Russia, this transmission of knowledge was effected through clinics, public lectures and the mass publication of popular literature, the same methods of propaganda employed elsewhere. Also, as elsewhere in the Western world, both before and since, the campaign for modern mothering was coordinated by the medical profession, which presented itself as the guardian and practitioner of the new knowledge and instructed mothers to turn to doctors rather than to wise women for advice and aid. As well as these similarities, this modernisation of Russian motherhood exhibited a number of special characteristics. It was rather late in starting, and slow to get off the ground. At the end of the 19th century, child care manuals were circulating in the cities and urban clinics had opened their doors, but not until the 1920s and 1930s did the new medical knowledge begin to make an impression on the villages, and even then changes were sporadic and uneven. Because of the sharp gulf, historically, between society and the people in Russia, and the small size of the middle class, this shift from traditional to modern was resisted with

Sociology: Cultural Diversity in a Changing World

Abstract: 'Ourselves and Others,' 'Focus on Mexico,' and 'Focus on Japan' features in almost every chapter. Preface. 1. The World According to Sociology. Theme of the Text. The Sociological Style: Unraveling Human Social Patterns. Thinking Sociologically: Theoretical Paradigms. Doing Sociology: Is There a Method to Their Madness. 2. Culture. The Roots of Human Culture. The Normative Order. Cultural Diversity and Change. 3. Groups and Social Structure. The Concept of Social Structure. Groups and Other Collectivities. Types of Social Groups. Societies and Societal Development. 4. Socialization. On Being Human: Biology and Human Nature. On Being Human: Social Learning and Human Nature. Theories of Socialization as Human Development. Socialization as Social Learning. Socialization, Oversocialization and Social Control. 5. Inequality and Stratification. Assessing Social Inequality. Explanations and Interpretations of Stratification. Open and Closed Stratification Systems: Class, Caste, and Social Mobility. Inequality and Stratification in the United States. The Consequences of Social Stratification. 6. Race and Ethnicity. Race and Ethnic Relations: An Overview. Patterns of Racial and Ethnic Group Relations. Racial and Ethnic Intergroup Relations in the Unites States. Minorities and Poverty in the United States: A Declining Significance of Race? Minority Group Relations in the Global Village. 7. Gender and Gender Issues. Understanding Sex and Gender. Traditional Gender Stereotyping and Gender Roles. Becoming Women and Men: Gender Socialization. Theoretical Interpretations and Explanations of Gender Roles. Patterns of Gender Stratification. 8. Crime, Deviance, and Social Control. Deviance: A Sociological View. Theories of Crime and Deviance. Deviant and Criminal Behavior. 9. Marriage and the Family. The Family in America: A Brief History. Theoretical Perspectives. Love, Marriage, and Divorce American Style. Single-Parent Families. Gay Families. Violence in the Family. The Family and Modernization. The Impact of Industrialization. The Developing World. 10. Education and Religion. Education as a Social Institution. Theoretical Interpretations of Education The U.S. Educational System Problems and Proposals in U.S. Education. Religion as a Social Institution. Theoretical Perspectives on Religion Religion in the United States: From Puritans to Televangelists Religion and Modernization. 11. Economy and Politics. Economy as a Social Institution. Theoretical Interpretations of the Economy Types of Economies The U.S. Economic System 'Haves' and 'Have Nots' in the International Marketplace. Politics as a Social Institution. Theoretical Interpretations of Political Institutions The U.S. Political System Politics in a Changing World. 12. Population. Fertility. Mortality. Migration. Population Composition. Population of the United States. World Population. Controlling Fertility. The Politics of Food. 13. Urbanization. Early Cities. Preindustrial Cities. Cities in the Modern World. Human Ecology and the City. From Jamestown to Manhattan and Back. Sunbelt Cities. Winter Cities. The Metropolitan Transition. Urban Compositions and Lifestyles. Urban Problems. Urban Explosion in Developing Nations. 14. Modernization. Modern People. Modernization Theories. World System Theory. Women in the Third World. Pity the Children. Problems and Solutions. Glossary. References. Author Index. Subject Index.

Social Policy and the Elderly in South Korea: Confucianism, Modernization, and Development

Abstract: Since the 1960s, South Korea has shifted from being mainly an agrarian, rural society to an urbanized and industrial, newly modernizing one. Of the Asian modernized or modernizing societies such as Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand that have Confucian ethical heritages, it appears that South Korea is one of the most closely bound to the relational aspects of this heritage. The Republic of Korea (ROK) is a society of some 44 million people in which 98 % of the population is literate and in which, in 1987, 78.1% of the labor force was in the secondary and tertiary industrial sector and 69% of the population lived in urban areas. Per capita GNP in 1989 was $4,550, and in 1990 an average wage earner's monthly family income was about $1,235. In 1990 the South Korean fertility rate was about 1.7 children per family and was expected to remain less than two children per family during the 1990s. On the other hand, life expectancy at birth in 1990 was 69.3 years for men and 75 years for women. In 1990, 4.7% of Korea's population was over 65 years old with the expectation that, by 2020, that figure would rise to 11%. ' Modernization, accompanied by demographic changes, urbanization, and industrialization, has contributed to changes in South Korea's family structure. Average household size for a family declined from 5.6 persons

Reflexive modernity, self‐reflective biographies: adult education in the light of the risk society

Abstract: The aim of this article is to present a view on adult education in the light of the concept of ‘risk society’, as articulated by the German sociologist Ulrich Beck. In his view, there is no such thing as a post‐modern society; on the contrary we are rapidly entering into a new episode of history in which ‘simple modernization’ is transforming into ‘reflexive modernization’. This development confronts society, and adult education, with new themes such as ecological safety, the danger of losing control over technological and scientific innovations, the internalization of political structures, the growth of a much more flexible labour force, etc. A specific feature of risk society mentioned by Beck is the process of individualization: biographies become more ‘self‐reflexive’, i.e., what used to be a socially conditioned biography is gradually transformed into a biography in which the individual is free to make decisions about the organization of his life. In a way, biographies are de‐standardized; this devel...

The economics of industrial modernization

Abstract: Defining Modernization. The Microeconomics of Diffusion. Technological Change and Investment. Technological Changes and Diffusion: The Cotton Filiere. The Econometrics of Cotton Filiere Modernization. On Endogenous Technological Change. Chapter References. Index.

Afrikaner Fears and the Politics of Despair: Understanding Change in South Africa

Abstract: In light of recent changes in South African politics symbolized by the release from prison of Mr. Nelson Mandela, we ask three related questions: (1) Why has the Afrikaner-dominated government of President F. W. de Klerk decided at this time to initiate a process of political reform? (2) Is there any chance at all that a negotiated settlement to the country's problems can be reached? and (3) What theoretical perspective best enables us to answer these questions? In seeking answers we use data collected in a 1988 mail questionnaire from a nationwide sample of elite Afrikaner politicians, civil servants, businessmen, clergy, academics, and journalists. Our theoretical perspective questions both neo-Marxist and neo-liberal versions of “modernization theory” with their excessive focus on capitalist development as the motor of change and, in contrast, stresses how black political practices have affected white attitudes and political transformation. We demonstrate the fundamental role of individual attitudes in the circle of reciprocal influence between the economy and the polity. Our evidence indicates that prominent Afrikaners appear willing to accept a federal system in which power would be shared among participating racial groups, but they are not yet prepared to agree to the nonracial democracy demanded by apartheid's opponents. We thus see negotiations as likely, but whether they will result in a “post-apartheid” South Africa will depend upon continuing black resistance to race-based politics.

The End of Sovietoloy and the Renaissance of Modernization Theory@@@The Accidental Proletariat: Workers, Politics, and Crisis in Gorbachev's Russia.@@@Ko-ops: The Rebirth of Entrepreneurship in the Soviet Union.@@@Steeltown, USSR: Soviet Society in the Gorbachev Era.

Abstract: No one, not even Mikhail Gorbachev, anticipated what was in store when the Soviet Union embarked in the 1980s on a radical course of long-overdue structural reform. The consequences of that momentous decision, which set in motion a transformation eventually affecting the entire postwar world order, are here chronicled from inside a previously forbidden Soviet city, Magnitogorsk. Built under Stalin and championed by him as a showcase of socialism, the city remained closed to Western scrutiny until four years ago, when Stephen Kotkin became the first American to live there in nearly half a century. An uncommonly perceptive observer, a gifted writer, and a first-rate social scientist, Kotkin offers the reader an unsurpassed portrait of daily life in the Gorbachev era. From the formation of 'informal' political groups to the start-up of fledgling businesses in the new cooperative sector, from the no-holds-barred investigative reporting of a former Communist party mouthpiece to a freewheeling multicandidate election campaign, the author conveys the texture of contemporary Soviet society in the throes of an upheaval not seen since the 1930s. Magnitogorsk, a planned 'garden city' in the Ural Mountains, serves as Kotkin's laboratory for observing the revolutionary changes occurring in the Soviet Union today. Dominated by a self-perpetuating Communist party machine, choked by industrial pollution, and haunted by a suppressed past, this once-proud city now faces an uncertain future, as do the more than one thousand other industrial cities throughout the Soviet Union. Kotkin made his remarkable first visit in 1987 and returned in 1989. On both occasions, steelworkers and schoolteachers, bus drivers and housewives, intellectuals and former victims of oppression - all willingly stepped forward to voice long-suppressed grievances and aspirations. Their words animate this moving narrative, the first to examine the impact and contradictions of perestroika in a single community. Like no other Soviet city, Magnitogorsk provides a window onto the desperate struggle to overcome the heavy burden of Stalin's legacy.

As I Lay Dying in the Machine Age

Abstract: The cultural transformation marking the New South was structured by a central dialectic: the dynamic relation between modernization and modernism. Various plans to rejuvenate the South after World War I urged the adoption of modernized modes of production, including tenancy and credit reform for farmers; crop diversification; increased commodity consumption; technological improvements, such as electrification and mechanization; cooperatives for equipment and supply purchasing; improved housing; reforestation and erosion work; and the development of small, local industry.1 Despite significant differences in the panoply of New South programs (for example, differences over the degrees of commitment to northern capital and management techniques, or over the extent to which black fortunes

The Overpoliticized State and Democratization: A Theoretical Model

Abstract: With the "demise" of modernization theory, the debate over the third world state has followed different tracks. Although still in use, the bureaucratic-authoritarian state model and the inherited postcolonial state thesis have been superseded in recent years by new paradigms. In addition to the resurgence of Weberian analysis in third world studies, there has been a wave of literature about the "democratizing" state. In this essay, I do not propose strategies of democratization. My purpose is to argue that, although democratization is highly desirable, an underlying issue has not been adequately addressed: the theoretical status of the state in the third world. I shall attempt to show that, by being structurally different from the liberal democratic state of the West, the third world state defies assumptions and modes of analysis made in the democratization literature.

Socio-Economic Characteristics of Audiences for Western Classical Music in Japan: A Statistical Analysis

Abstract: In this paper we are concerned with the role of the Western classical music in contemporary Japanese society and culture. Japan launched the adoption of Western music in the curriculum of the new national educational system which was promulgated in August 1872 by the Japanese Government after Japan’s modernization. In almost one century, Japan has attained intellectual accomplishment of such a stature that we are proud of our ensembles, instrumentalists, vocalists, conductors and composers from Japan in the international music markets. Moreover, concerts of classical music flourish in Japan thanks to a flood of visits by renowed ensembles and opera companies from abroad. In the light of these concert activities now in Japan one would naturally ask what is current status of classical music in Japanese society and culture. Or, to put it in another way, what meaning does the Western classical music hold for the Japanese in their social and community life? In order to respond to this broad question, the focus of this paper will be placed not on the production of cultural services (or of classic music) but on their reception. The study of their reception, sheds new light on the development and separation of “high culture” from “popular culture” and demonstrates that the notion of “cultural capital”, first put forward by Bourdieu (1979), as indicated in the next section, is a useful way of clarifying the significance of the production and circulation of cultural services in our society.1

Neo-Confucian education : the formative stage

Abstract: In the early days of the modernization of East Asia, Neo-Confucianism was often held responsible for the purported intellectual, political, and social failings of traditional societies in the nineteenth century. Today, with frequent comparisons between the rapid success at modernization of many of these societies and the slowness of other underdeveloped countries, Neo-Confucianism has come to be seen under a very different light; analysts now point to the common Confucian culture of China, Japan, Korea, and overseas Chinese communities as a driving force in the East Asian peoples' receptivity to new learning, disciplined industriousness, and capacity for both cultural and economic development. Central to this remarkable capacity for development, these essays argue, lies the influence of the great twelfth-century thinker Chu Hsi. He has been considered responsible for providing much of the intellectual mortar that preserved the established order for centuries. However, when viewed in their historical setting, many of Chu's views can be seen as liberalindeed, progressive. This is the first comprehensive study of Chu as an educator and of the propagation of his teachings throughout East Asia. Covering a wide spectrum of intellectual and social developments, the contributors address the ways in which Neo-Confucian thought and ethics were adapted to changes in Chinese society that anticipate many features and problems of modern society today."

Social Change, Development and Dependency: Modernity, Colonialism and the Development of the West

Abstract: Introduction. Part I. Concepts of Social Change:. 1. Opposing Influences in Sociology:. Historical Materialism and Structural--Functionalism. 2. Development and its Denial:. Modernization Theory versus Dependency Theory. 3. Social Interaction and the Reproduction of Institutions through Time and Space: The Theory of Structuration and the Concept of Inter--Societal Systems. Part II. The Rise of Western Civilization:. 4. The Development of European Institutions as Western Culture. 5. Western Societies as a State System:. The Development of the Nation--State. 6. Colonial Episodes:. The Implanting of Western Institutions around the World. Part III. The Definition of Three a Worldsa after the Second World War:. 7. Post--War Reconstruction and New Global Organizations:. The Confirmation of an Inter--Societal System. 8. The Formation of the Soviet Union and the Second World:. State Socialism as an Alternative Pathway of Development. 9. The Identification of the Third World and the Recognition of Dependency. Part IV. The World Towards the End of the Twentieth Century:. 10. Contemporary Western Development:. Liberal Democratic Capitalism through Crises but Re--Affirmed. 11. Development in the East:. Japan and the Newly Industrializing Countries of East Asia. 12. The Resurgence of Islamism:. An Alternative to Western Capitalism or State Socialism?. Conclusion.

Van 'ascription' naar 'achievement'? Trends in statusverwerving in Nederland tussen 1930 en 1980

Abstract: To examine patterns in social mobility in the Netherlands, questionnaire data were obtained from 9,548 men, 1970-1987, who entered the labor market 1929-1980. Instead of a standard mobility table, a simple status attainment model is used based on fathers' & sons' educational & job status. A historical analysis reveals why ascription & inheritance models of occupational mobility were transformed during the twentieth century. Various trends & fluctuations are traced to changes on the national scale. It is concluded that the modernization process had a negative impact on ascription processes & a positive impact on achievement processes. 5 Tables, 5 Figures, 24 References.