Showing papers on "Peer group published in 1992"

Do Girls Manipulate and Boys Fight? Developmental Trends in Regard to Direct and Indirect Aggression

Abstract: Gender differences in regard to aggressive behaviour were investigated in a series of studies of schoolchildren of different age cohorts: 8-year-olds (N = 85), 11-year-olds (N = 167), and 15-year-olds (N = 127). Different types of aggressive behaviour were measured with peer nomination techniques, supported by self-ratings. The social structure of the peer groups were also studied. The results of the 11-year-old cohort were previously presented by Lagerspetz et al. [1988; Aggressive Behavior 14:403-4141, but they are compared here with the other age groups. The principal finding was that girls of the two older cohorts overall make greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas boys tend to employ direct means. Previously, the main difference between the genders has been thought to be that boys use physical aggressive strategies, while girls prefer verbal ones. Our studies suggest that the differentiation between direct and indirect strategies of aggression presents a more exact picture. Indirect aggressive strategies were not yet fully developed among the 8-year-old girls, but they were already prominent among the 11-year-old girls. Aggressive behaviour was assessed overall by the children themselves to be the highest in this age group.

The Influence of Familial and Peer-based Reference Groups on Consumer Decisions

Abstract: A replication and extension of a study performed by Bearden and Etzel are reported in this article. The influence of peers on individuals' product and brand decisions for products that range in their degree of conspicuousness is examined for comparable samples in the United States and in Thailand to assess the validity of the original framework over time and across cultural contexts. Further, the influence of the family is addressed through an examination of intergenerational influences across the two cultures. The results of the study lend support to the original theoretical approach and also provide insight into how reference-group influence may vary depending on whether the influence is exercised by a member of a peer group or by a family member.

Why children start smoking cigarettes: predictors of onset.

Abstract: We review findings from 27 prospective studies of the onset of cigarette smoking conducted since 1980. Almost 300 measures of predictors of smoking onset were examined, and 74% of them provided multivariate support for predictors of onset derived from theory and previous empirical findings. Expected relationships were strongly supported for (a) socioeconomic status, with students with compromised status being more likely to try smoking; (b) social bonding variables, particularly peer and school bonding, with less support for family bonding; (c) social learning variables, especially peer smoking and approval, prevalence estimates, and offers/availability, with less consistent support for parent smoking and approval; (d) refusal skills self efficacy; (e) knowledge, attitudes and intentions, with the expected stronger predictions from intentions than from attitudes than from knowledge; and (f) broad indicators of self-esteem. The few investigators who analyzed their data separately by age, gender, or ethnicity found many differences by these factors, though there were too few of them to detect any pattern with confidence. Though the 27 studies are far from perfect, we believe that they confirm the importance of many well-accepted predictors and raise some questions about others. In particular, family smoking, bonding and approval each received unexpectedly low support. It is not clear whether this lack of support reflects reality as it has always been, is due to a changing reality, reflects developmental changes, either in the age of subjects or the stage of onset, or is due to poor measurement and too few tests. Future prospective studies need to be theory-driven, use measures of known reliability and validity, report analyses of scale properties, and use statistical methods appropriate to the hypotheses or theories under study. Finally, we encourage more investigations of the potentially different predictors of transitions to experimental or regular cigarette smoking. This will require multi-wave studies and careful measurement of changes in smoking behavior.

Measuring Peer Group Effects: A Study of Teenage Behavior

Abstract: Individuals or households often have some scope for choice of peer groups, whether through the selection of neighborhood of residence, school, or friends. This study addresses the estimation of peer group effects in cases in which measures of peer group influence are potentially endogenous variables. Using a rich data set on individual behavior, the paper explores teenage pregnancy and school dropout behavior. For both cases, the estimation of a straight-forward single-equation model yields statistically significant peer group effects; however, these effects disappear under simultaneous equation estimation. The results are robust and suggest the need for careful modeling of the choice of peer groups.

Predicting early adolescent disorder from childhood aggression and peer rejection.

Abstract: Two large cohorts of Black 3rd-grade children from low-income families were followed into early adolescence. Adjustment at the end of the 1st year of middle school was assessed by teacher and parent ratings and by adolescent self-reports. Childhood peer social status predicted parent-reported externalized and internalized disorder and self-reported internalized disorder. Childhood aggression predicted self-reported externalized and internalized disorder and parent-reported externalized disorder. Teacher ratings of school adjustment were predicted by aggression, rejection, and sex of the child. Consensus judgments of poor adjustment were predicted by both aggression and peer rejection, with sex moderating the effect of peer rejection. Both childhood aggression and peer rejection appear to be significant predictors of adolescent disorder, with each making a predictive contribution uniquely its own.

Parental and Peer Influences on Leisure-Time Physical Activity in Young Adolescents

Abstract: Influence from parents and friends on adolescents' self-reported level of leisure-time physical activity was examined through measures of (a) perceived leisure-time physical activity of parents and best friend, (b) perceived direct support for physical activity from parents and friends, (c) direct help from parents in exercising vigorously, and (d) perceived value of physical activity of parents and friends. The present analysis included 904 students in western Norway (M age 13.3 years, SD 0.3) who took part in a health behavior survey, which included questions regarding physical activity. Students completed a confidential questionnaire at school All four measures of influence were positively related to students' activity levels. None of the examined measures was clearly stronger than the other. Parental and peer physical activity level and parental and peer support for physical activity seem to influence the reported physical activity level of the respondents. The findings indicate that, by serv...

Maternal and paternal disciplinary styles : relations with preschoolers' playground behavioral orientations and peer status

Abstract: To explore relations among parents' self-reported disciplinary styles, preschoolers' playground behavioral orientations, and peer status, 106 mothers and fathers of preschool-age children (age range = 40-71 months) participated in home disciplinary style interviews. Observations of their children's playground behavior in preschool settings and measures of sociometric status were also obtained. Results indicated that children of more inductive mothers and fathers (i.e., less power assertive) exhibited fewer disruptive playground behaviors. In addition, daughters and older preschoolers of inductive mothers exhibited more prosocial behavior. Children of inductive mothers were also more preferred by peers. Few significant relations were found between paternal discipline and child behavior/peer status. Age-related patterns of behavior also indicated that older preschoolers who engaged in more prosocial and less antisocial and disruptive playground behavior were more preferred by peers. In addition, child behaviors were found to mediate maternal discipline and peer status.

Peer-mediated intervention: attending to, commenting on, and acknowledging the behavior of preschoolers with autism.

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of a peer-mediated intervention on the social interaction of five triads comprised of preschoolers with autism and their typical peers. Strategies thought to facilitate interaction were selected based on analyses of a descriptive data base. Peers were taught to attend to, comment on, and acknowledge the behavior of their classmates with disabilities. These are behaviors preschoolers typically exhibit frequently, but that do not obligate responses to the same extent as questions and requests do. The ABCB reversal designs revealed that improved rates of social interaction during play were clearly associated with the peer intervention for 4 of the 5 children with autism. This intervention offers an alternative peer-intervention package for increasing interaction between children with and without disabilities.

Teaching social skills to students with autism to increase peer interactions in an integrated first-grade classroom.

Abstract: We investigated the use of social skills groups to facilitate increased social interactions for students with autism and their nonhandicapped peers in an integrated first-grade classroom. Social skills groups consisted of training students and peers in initiating, responding, and keeping interactions going; greeting others and conversing on a variety of topics; giving and accepting compliments; taking turns and sharing; asking for help and helping others; and including others in activities. Training occurred during the first 10 min of 20-min play groups, four times per week. Using a multiple baseline across subjects design, results demonstrated increases in the frequency of, time engaged in, and duration of social interactions, as well as the responsivity of students and peers to each other. Results were maintained when students were monitored and given feedback on social performance in play groups and during follow-up.

Family and peer social support as specific correlates of adolescent depressive symptoms

Abstract: Depression models that emphasize the social environment have not been tested with adolescents and their specificity to depressive symptoms has not been demonstrated. In a study of 94 adolescent inpatients, distinctions were drawn between family and peer support to determine if these sources of support were differentially related to depression symptoms. Step-down multivariate multiple-regression analyses showed that depression symptoms were uniquely predicted by social relationship variables after accounting for the effects of anxiety and conduct disorder symptoms. Depression was negatively related to family and paternal support, but it was positively related to peer support. Furthermore, family and paternal support interacted with peer support in the prediction of depression. The results are consistent with the assertion that disturbances in important supportive attachments have special significance for the experience of depressive symptoms by adolescents.

Promoting reciprocal interactions via peer incidental teaching

Abstract: This study evaluated peer incidental teaching as a strategy for increasing reciprocal peer interactions by children with autism. Three typical preschoolers were trained as peer tutors for 3 young children with autism. During a classroom free-play session, peer tutors used incidental teaching to obtain verbal labels of preferred toys by children with autism. A multiple baseline across the 3 target children showed replicated positive effects of the intervention. Adult supervision and assistance were then faded systematically, with resulting maintenance of increased reciprocal interactions. Multiple measures of the extent and limits of generalization suggested that 1 child increased interactions in free-play periods throughout the day, but none of the children showed increases at lunch. Teacher and peer ratings supported the social validity of positive findings.

Parents' child-rearing style and child's sociometric status.

Abstract: This study examined relationships between parents' child-rearing style, the child's prosocial behavior, and the child's sociometric status. The sample consisted of 112 children (6-11 years of age) and both their parents. Parental behavior in the interaction with the child was observed at home when parents and child worked together in 2 structured tasks. Factor analyses of parental behavior revealed that 2 factors, Authoritative/Democratic and Authoritarian/Restrictive, can be found in the subsamples of mothers and fathers. These 2 dimensions of maternal and paternal behavior appeared to be predictive of both the child's prosocial behavior and sociometric status. Results are discussed in terms of the possible link between parent and peer systems. A child's acceptance by a peer group plays an important role in his or her social and personality development. Peer rejection seems to be a reasonably stable phenomenon (Coie & Dodge, 1983; Rogosch & Newcomb, 1989) and is predictive of later social maladjustment (Cowen, Pederson, Babigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Parker & Asher, 1987). Most of the research concerned with the determinants of a child's sociometric status in the peer group have focused primarily on children's behavioral and social cognitive characteristics. The role that parents may play in the development and maintenance of their child's sociometric status was generally ignored, although it is logical to assume that at least some of a child's social skills necessary for successful interaction with peers are learned through the parent-child interactions (Hartup, 1979). Several studies showed that a child's sociometric status in the peer group is related to socialization factors present in the parent-child system (Finnie & Russell, 1988; MacDonald, 1987; MacDonald & Parke, 1984; Parke et al., 1989; Peery, Jensen, & Adams, 1985; Putallaz & Heflin, 1990; Roopnarine & Adams, 1987). Very few studies, however, examined the mediating link in this relationship. What aspects of social competence do children learn in the parent-child setting that transfer directly or indirectly to their relationship with peers? One possibility that has been examined in recent research is that parent-child interaction influences children's sociometric status by affecting the child's social cognitive (or processing) skills, including social problem solving (Pettit, Dodge, & Brown, 1988; Putallaz, 1987) and the child's expectations of the outcome of social strategies (Hart, Ladd, & Burleson, 1990). However, in the context of the family, the child acquires not only many of the social cognitive skills, but also a behavioral pattern that might be important for a successful adaptation to

Influences on adolescent sexuality in Nigeria and Kenya: findings from recent focus-group discussions.

Abstract: Continuing high rates of adolescent childbearing in sub-Saharan Africa indicate a need for improved understanding of factors affecting adolescent sexuality. As traditional cultural influences on adolescent sexuality in Africa have diminished, peer interaction and modern influences have gained importance. To study peer interaction and societal factors and their impact on adolescent attitudes toward sexuality and contraception, the authors conducted a series of single-sex-focus-group discussions with in-school and out-of-school youth in urban and rural areas of Kenya and Nigeria in 1990. Out-of-school youth generally receive information on sexuality and family planning from peers (and the media), while in-school youth receive information in school, although not necessarily relevant information. Young women interviewed perceived unwanted early childbearing as something that affected them, an important precursor to family planning use. However, young people tended to have better information and more positive attitudes about induced abortion than about family planning.

The relationship between physical competence and peer acceptance in the context of children's sports participation

Abstract: Youth sport literature contends that the development of self-esteem is influenced by social interactions in the physical domain. However, little research has investigated the role of the peer group in developing perceptions of physical competence and social acceptance. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship, between competence in physical skills and interpersonal competence with peers in a sport setting. Children (N=126) completed measures assessing perceptions of physical competence and peer acceptance» perceptions of success for athletic performance and interpersonal skills, causal attributions for physical performance and interpersonal success» and expectations for future success in these two areas. Teachers' ratings of children's actual physical ability and social skills with peers were also obtained. Canonical correlation analyses indicated a strong relationship (rc = .75) between indices of physical competence and peer acceptance. Children who scored high in actual and perceived p...

The relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology during the transition to junior high school: A two-year longitudinal analysis

Abstract: Studied the longitudinal relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology among a sample of 143 early adolescents during a two-year period spanning the transition from elementary school to junior high school. Correlational analyses indicated strong inverse relations between peer support and symptoms, both cross sectionally and across time. Prospective analyses investigated the degree to which prior levels of peer support were related to subsequent symptoms after controlling for initial levels of symptoms and, conversely, the degree to which prior symptoms were related to future levels of peer support after controlling for initial levels of support. A significant prospective effect for peer support was found only for the specific period encompassing the school change. Prospective effects for symptoms were more numerous and of longer duration. The discussion emphasizes how the relation among support, stress, and mental health may differ over the course of a major life transition. Implications are also considered for the timing of preventive interventions.

Multiple influences on the acquisition and socialization of children's health attitudes and behavior: an integrative review.

Abstract: An overview and synthesis of the literature documenting various influences on the socialization and acquisition of children's health attitudes and behavior is the focus of this review. Cognitive-developmental approaches to understanding children's health attitudes are presented, followed by an exploration of an individual differences perspective on children's acquisition of health attitudes and behavior. The influence of various socialization agents, including families, peers, schools, and the media, on children's acquisition of health attitudes and behavior is considered. Implications of these findings for social policy, future research, and modeling of child health attitudes and behavior are examined.

Locus of peer influence: Social crowd and best friend.

Abstract: This study examined the relative influence of the best friends and social crowds of older adolescents on cigarette smoking. The data were examined to determine if there were differences in influence as a function of sex, conformity, or the mutuality of the friendship. This study used a longitudinal design that enabled the separation of the effects of peer influence from those of selective association. The results showed that social crowds differed in mean level of cigarette smoking, with burnouts smoking the most and jock/preps smoking the least. The majority of best friendships were homogeneous for social crowd. Best friend influence predicted change in cigarette smoking over a one-year period, while social crowd influence appeared to be minimal. Conformity was positively related to susceptibility to peer influence, although mutuality of the friendship and sex of the subject were not.

Familial contribution to peer competence among young children: The role of interactive and affective processes

Abstract: In recent years, considerable progress has been made in our understanding o f the relationships between the family and the peer group. No longer are these two sets o f social systems viewed as independent, but instead they are conceptualized as mutually interdependent (Hartup, 1979; Rubin & Sloman, 1984). Moreover, it is recognized that these two systems are linked in multiple ways. In earlier presentations, we have outlined three alternative pathways that serve to link family and peer systems; these links are not mutually exclusive and may play different roles at different developmental points across development (Parke, MacDonald, Beitel, & Bhavnagri, 1988; Parke, MacDonald, Burks, Carson, Bhavnagri, Barth, & Beitel, 1989).

Friendship in adolescence.

Abstract: This article reviews current theory and research on adolescent friendship and offers a framework in which friendship is developmentally characterized by reciprocity, co-construction and consensual validation. Three areas of research are reviewed: (1) the relative influence of parents and peers, (2) popularity among peers, and (3) gender differences in friendship. These conclusions are drawn: (1) although peer influence increases during adolescence, parents remain strong socializing agents throughout adolescence; (2) popularity status is associated with social behavior. These behaviors are related to differential developmental outcomes for adolescents; (3) studies on the socialization of gender need to take into account the cultural context and historical changes in male-female distinctions. After years of neglect, social scientists have found friendship to be an important vehicle for psychological and psychiatric development. For example, a promising new development is the use of peer interaction as a therapeutic tool for troubled adolescents.

Development of conduct problems and peer rejection in preschool children: a social systems analysis.

Abstract: The development of impulsive-aggressive problem behavior and peer rejection was examined in sixty 4- to 5-year-old boys from low-income family backgrounds Children's sociometric status and behavioral adjustment were assessed longitudinally at the beginning and end of the preschool year, and related to measures of peer interaction at three different points in time Boys identified as socially rejected and aggressive in the beginning of the year were highly likely to be identified as such at the end of the year Early in the preschool year, these children contributed to their own rejection by initiating socially aversive exchanges with peers Although peers clearly perceived these problems, they did not reciprocate with counteraggression at first However, as time passed, peers began to actively victimize these children, and most of the aggression on the part of victims became reactive in nature Thus, the current findings strongly support a transactional model of the development of early peer rejection and conduct problems

Effects of self-evaluation on preschool children's use of social interaction strategies with their classmates with autism

Abstract: This study investigated effects of a self-evaluation procedure on preschool children's use of social interaction strategies among their classmates with autism Three triads of children (comprised of 1 trained normally developing peer, 1 untrained peer, and 1 child with autism) participated A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to demonstrate that peers who were taught facilitative strategies increased their use of strategies only after the self-evaluation intervention was introduced Improvements in social behavior of children with autism was associated with peers' increased strategy use Untrained peers demonstrated little change in their social behavior Treatment effects were replicated when trained peers were asked to use self-evaluation with other children with autism during other play times Self-evaluation procedures enhanced the use of social interaction strategies on the part of normally developing peers during social skills interventions

The classwide peer tutoring program: implementation factors moderating students' achievement

Abstract: We conducted a study designed to assess implementation of the classwide peer tutoring program and the relationship between implementation variation and student outcome. A clinical replication design was used. Five volunteer elementary teachers were trained to implement the program; their implementation was monitored for 19 consecutive weeks during 1 school year. Overall, the results indicated that specific variations in program implementation were associated with students' responses to treatment. It was also demonstrated that different teachers' applications of the program produced differential levels of student outcome. Implementation factors related to lower spelling achievement were (a) reduced opportunities to receive program sessions, (b) reduced probabilities of students' participation in program opportunities, (c) too many students assigned unchallenging spelling words, and (d) reduced rates of daily point earning reflecting lower levels of spelling practice during tutoring sessions. The implications of these findings and methods of preventing these implementation problems are discussed in the context of quality assurance and social validity.

Fading teacher prompts from peer-initiation interventions for young children with disabilities.

Abstract: This study examined a system for fading teacher prompts to children who served as peers in peer-initiation interventions for young children with disabilities. A teacher taught peers to direct social initiations to children with disabilities, provided verbal prompts for those initiations, and introduced a system that provided peers with visual feedback about the social interactions of the children with disabilities. She then systematically withdrew the verbal prompts to peers, and subsequently faded the visual feedback system. Peer initiations increased when the intervention began and resulted in increases in social interaction for the children with disabilities. As the teacher systematically faded the prompts and visual feedback to the peers, social interaction continued at the levels found during intervention and was maintained during a short maintenance period.

Inhibition in toddlerhood and the dynamics of the child's interaction with an unfamiliar peer at age five.

Abstract: Measures of inhibition to social and nonsocial unfamiliar events, obtained in toddlerhood, were studied as predictors of social behaviors during an interaction with an unfamiliar peer in 100 5-year-old children. Social inhibition predicted a highly shy and inhibited behavioral pattern with peer and less frequent expression of affect during fantasy play; nonsocial inhibition predicted decreased involvement in group play. Analysis of the changing dynamics of the ongoing peer interaction revealed that the role of child inhibition as a predictor of social behavior may be mostly evident during the initial encounter with the peer. Children who as toddlers were particularly socially inhibited, during the initial phase of peer interaction showed a significantly stronger pattern of shy and inhibited behavior and proximity to mother. In contrast to existing evidence that maternal depression may be a risk factor for the child's long-term peer relationships, no differences in social behavior were found between children of normal and affectively ill mothers during a brief encounter with unfamiliar peers.

Peer Responses to Social Interaction With Depressed Adolescents

Abstract: Investigated peers' reactions to social interaction with clinically depressed adolescents. Twenty-three adolescents (10 males, 13 females) diagnosed, with a depressive disorder and 23 matched normal adolescents participated in a semistructured interaction with a same-sex, unfamiliar peer, who was a confederate in the study. Following the interaction, the peer confederates rated their responses to their partner's social acceptability. The findings indicated that depressed adolescents were less likely to be rated as popular in their peer group than nondepressed adolescents. Female depressives were rated as less desirable friends and as tess interested in establishing friendships than nondepressed females. The results are discussed in terms of the interactional view of depression.

Do neighborhoods influence child and adolescent behavior

Abstract: Information at the individual family and neighborhood level is used to examine the ways in which residence in low income and affluent neighborhoods affects cognitive and behavioral development of children and adolescents. There is a brief discussion of relevant literature and a simple model proposed which explains the ways in which neighborhood and family factors affect development 2 data sets are described the results of model estimation are summarized the size of neighborhood effects and quantified and implications are discussed. Data were obtained from the 1990 Infant Health and Development Program on 680 low birth wright (LBW) preterm infants at the age of 3 years born in 6 medical centers in the US and from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics on 2200 14-19 year old women. Separate models were constructed for the 2 age groups. Family level characteristics include economic resources parental characteristics and parenting behavior and home environment and all are included in the early childhood model. Additional characteristics are included in the teenage model: school environments peer groups and economic opportunities. In a simple model both data sets test for whether socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods are associated with developmental outcomes. In the social isolation model it is expected that female headship male joblessness racial composition and public assistance may affect development. In the family effects model the question is whether neighborhood effects operate differently for families with different characteristics. Outcomes for cognitive/school functioning (Standford Binet Intelligence Scale) and social/emotional function (Child Behavior Checklist for ages 2-3) or out of wedlock teenage childbearing and dropping out of school. The results show that children growing up in affluent neighborhoods appear to do better than children in low income neighborhoods even when family level differences are controlled for for toddlers and teenagers. The data support the collective socialization theories about the absence of affluent families and show inconsistent support for the Jencks and Mayer contagion theories. Wilsons social isolation theory is partially supported; i.e. it is shown that a decrease in the number of ones affluent neighbors has greater effects on white and more affluent children. Income is a better predictor than maternal education of outcomes. Family level and neighborhood variables are both important in outcomes. The policy implication is that structural and family-oriented strategies need to be applied.

The social competence of very-low-birthweight children: teacher, peer, and self-perceptions.

Abstract: Whether very-low birthweight (VLBW less than or equal to 1500 gm) children differ from normal birthweight (NBW greater than 2500 gm) children with respect to social (as opposed to intellectual) competence has been a relatively neglected issue. The social competence at school age of 183 VLBW children was therefore compared with that of 183 NBW children born at the same hospital matched for age, gender, social class, parity, and maternal age. A multi-informant, multidefinitional approach to social competence was adopted involving teacher, (same-gender) peer, and self-ratings of the 366 children's levels of social maladjustment, social skill, and peer acceptance. VLBW children from the upper, middle, and lower social classes received significantly higher mean sadness/unhappiness scores (even with IQ covaried) than their NBW counterparts. Mean scores for the VLBW group were also higher for social withdrawal, and lower for both social skill and peer acceptance. Possible antecedents and consequences of such group differences in affect and sociability are suggested.

Factors Influencing the Social Status of Children with Mild Academic Disabilities in Regular Classrooms

Abstract: This article discusses the development and evaluation of a model of social status which has implications for students both with and without mild academic disabilities in integrated classrooms. Behavioral data relating to peer social status were collected from peers, teachers, and independent observers for 97 students with disabilities and 97 without disabilities from the same regular elementary school classes. Path analysis indicated that teachers' attitudes toward integration were not related to the social status of the students with disabilities. However, teacher perceptions of academic behavior, peer perceptions of academic behavior, and peer perceptions of disruptive behavior were found to be related to social status for both groups of students.

An Attributional Analysis of Resistance to Group Pressure regarding Illicit Drug and Alcohol Consumption

Abstract: This article investigates the role of attributional thinking in generating resistance to pressures toward conformity in the illicit consumption of drugs and alcohol. The results of four studies regarding how conformity influences illicit drug and alcohol consumption among high school and college students are reported. In study 1 more than two-thirds of the respondents reported concern for the implications of their own dissent or compliance regarding the reactions of their peers. Study 2 demonstrated a significant relationship between high school students' attributional thinking concerning a peer group's illicit beer consumption and conformity, expressed as intentions to drink the beer. In study 3, in-depth interviews with high school students provided insight into the realism of the conformity scenarios used in the research and the types of conformity pressures experienced by young people. In study 4, locus of causality, an abstract attributional dimension, and several specific attributions were shown to be significantly associated with conformity in the consumption of marijuana.