Showing papers on "Rural area published in 1993"

No Condition Is Permanent: The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract: "No Condition Is Permanent", a popular West African slogan, expresses Sara Berry's theme: the obstacles to African agrarian development never stay the same. Her book explores the complex way African economy and society are tied to issues of land and labour, offering a comparative study of agrarian change in four rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa. These include two that experienced long periods of expanding peasant production for export (southern Ghana and southwestern Nigeria ), a settler economy (central Kenya), and a rural labour reserve (northeastern Zambia). The resources available to African farmers have changed dramatically over the course of the 20th century. Berry asserts that the various ways resources are acquired and used are shaped not only by the incorporation of a rural area into colonial (later national) and global political economies, but also by conflicts over culture, power, and property within and beyond rural communities. By tracing the various debates over rights to resources and their effects on agricultural production and farmers' uses of income. Berry presents agrarian change as a series of on-going processes rather than a set of discrete "successes" and "failures". "No Condition Is Permanent" aims to show how multi-disciplinary studies of focal agrarian history can constructively contribute to development policy. The book is designed to be a contribution both to African agrarian history and to debates over the role of agriculture in Africa's recent economic crises.

Rural Residents' Attitudes Toward Recreation and Tourism Development

Abstract: This study investigates residents' attitudes toward recreation and tourism development in 10 rural Colorado towns. Two-per capita ratios based on tourism retail sales and total retail sales were developed and the communities were grouped into high and low tourism and high and low economic categories. These two ratios as grouping variables and length of residence as a covariate formed the basis for 2 x 2 ANCOVA conducted to determine any significant differences for eight recreation attitudes and 18 tourism development attitude statements. Generally, it was found that residents' attitudes towards tourism development in communities with both high economic and tourism development and low economic and tourism development were more positive than those residents of the low/high or high/low economic and tourism development communities. Further, recreation attitudes were affected by level of economic activity but not level of tourism development. Additionally, length of residence was found to have no significant e...

Constructing The Countryside

Abstract: Rural restructuring restructuring the countryside - key conceptual developments in assessing rural change agricultural regulation and the development of rural Britain property rights and interests in land planning and the rural land development process - the reconstitution of the public interest locality and power in the analysis of rural change researching the rural land development process - key conceptual and methodological issues constructing the countryside.

Recruitment, retention, and follow-up of graduates of a program to increase the number of family physicians in rural and underserved areas.

Abstract: Background To help address the geographic and specialty maldistribution of physicians, Jefferson Medical College initiated the Physician Shortage Area Program (PSAP) in 1974. This unique program, which combines a selective medical school admissions policy with a special educational program, has been shown to be successful in increasing the number of family physicians in rural and underserved areas, but it is not known whether they remain in this type of practice. Methods Graduates of the PSAP were tracked longitudinally and compared with their non-PSAP classmates. Information was obtained about the retention of family physicians in rural areas and areas with a physician shortage over the previous five years, the geographic and specialty choices of more recent graduates, and the recruitment of applicants into the program. Results Of the 47 PSAP graduates from the classes of 1978 through 1981, reported on earlier, the number who combined a career in family medicine with practice in a rural area or one with ...

Seasonal migration: a risk factor for HIV infection in rural Senegal.

Abstract: Sociodemographic and epidemiological data collected on a rural population of the Ziguinchor region of Senegal showed that a large part of the adult population, 80% of women between 15 and 24 years old and 82% of men between 20 and 40 years old, move each year on seasonal labor migrations to the main cities of Senegal or the Gambia or their proximity. In October 1990, an exhaustive seroprevalence survey of the population aged 20 years or older (3,230 persons tested) showed that 0.8% was HIV-2 and 0.1% HIV-1 seropositive. Interviews of 91 persons (24 seropositive persons and 67 seronegative controls) revealed that seropositivity was associated with a history of blood transfusions, injections, sexually transmitted diseases, and seasonal migration. Our findings suggest that in the rural area under study, beside a few cases of transmission by blood transfusion or injection, HIV-2 and HIV-1 are mainly transmitted first to adult men through sexual contacts with infected women met during their seasonal migration and second to their wives or regular partners once they are back home.

Poverty, Household Food Security, and Nutrition in Rural Pakistan

Abstract: The pathways from economic and social policies to improved food security and nutrition for the poor often are not well understood. Yet each day governments decide on policies that ultimately affect their well-being. How households increase their incomes, acquire food, improve health, or cope with insecurity are important concerns that need to be examined in order to devise policies to help eradicate poverty. Nearly all attempts to study these issues have used snapshot approaches those that look at one point in time. These approaches are limited in that they do not reveal anything about the actual dynamics of poverty, food security, and their consequences for nutrition and health. In this report Harold Alderman and Marito Garcia address these concerns by looking at longitudinal data for a three-year period, 1986-89, and analyzing fluctuations in incomes, consumption, savings, nutrition and health-seeking behavior of 800 households in five districts in rural Pakistan (Faisalabad and Attock in Punjab province, Badin in Sind, Dir in North-West Frontier Province, and Mastung/Kalat in Baluchistan). The report examines income sources and wage formation in rural Pakistan and investigates the level and distribution of income in poor households. It contributes to analysis of the temporal dimensions of poverty and thus adds to the literature on coping strategies of households. Although the three-year panel of data analyzed is too short to model fully the dynamics of poverty, it is sufficient to indicate the fluidity of the economic environment that households in Pakistan face. The report also traces the efficiency by which household incomes are converted to better nutritional well-being and the influence of other intervening factors such as health and education.

The determinants of use of maternal and child health services in Metro Cebu, the Philippines*

Abstract: The determinants of the use of family planning, prenatal care, childhood immunizations and oral rehydration salts (ORS) were studied with survey data of 8000 women in Metro Cebu, the Philippines. Polytomous logistic regression methods were used. The level of maternal education was the most consistent and important determinant of use of these four health services in both urban and rural areas. For example, the estimated odds of using modern contraception increased by six and eleven per cent for each additional year of schooling in urban and rural strata respectively. Economic status and access to service variables had less consistent patterns: women's work status, for example, was associated only with contraceptive use.

Child Labour in Africa

Abstract: • Workers under 18 face particular hazards. For example, in the US, the rate of injury per hour worked appears to be nearly twice as high for children and adolescents as adults. Similarly, a survey of 13 to 17 year olds in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden in 1998-99 revealed injury rates ranging from 3 to 19% of children working before or after school. In the developing countries, an ILO study found average rates of injury and illness per 100 children ranging from a low of 12% in agriculture (for boys) to a high of 35% (for girls) in the construction sector.

Greenways: A Guide To Planning Design And Development

Abstract: Greenways -- linear open spaces that preserve and restore nature in cities, suburbs, and rural areas -- are proving to be the most innovative land protection concept of the decade. Their diverse manifestations and wide variety of ecological, social, and economic values have made them the focus of planning for the future open space needs of Americans.This book provides professionals and citizen activists with the tools they need for developing a greenway plan. Topics covered include: the physical development of a greenway organizing community resources forging partnerships among public agencies, private groups, citizens, and businesses principles of ecological design, including wetland restoration, water quality, and wildlife issues The book offers general guidance for the overall process along with specific detail for each step along the way. It is an invaluable source of information for professional and volunteer planners, with the recommendations, guidelines, warnings, and support needed for successful greenway development.

Urban-rural differences in helping friends and family members

Abstract: I use a large national probability sample to test the hypothesis of urban-rural differences in helping between friends and family members. A very weak trend is apparent whereby urbanites receive more help,from friends than do rural dwellers, give more help to friends, expect more help from friends, and expect less help from relatives. These differences exist mainly because of the demographic compositions of urban and rural areas and because urban dwellers live farther from relatives than do rural dwellers. A different pattern appears among the elderly; in this group, urbanism is associated with receiving less assistance from others in general. The association between giving and receiving assistance is stronger in urban than in rural areas

Rural population mixing and childhood leukaemia: effects of the North Sea oil industry in Scotland, including the area near Dounreay nuclear site.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE--To determine if any excess of childhood leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was associated with certain striking examples of population mixing in rural Scotland produced by the North Sea oil industry. DESIGN--Details were traced for over 30,000 workers involved in the construction of the large oil terminals in the Shetland and Orkney islands in northern Scotland or employed offshore. Home addresses of the 17,160 Scottish residents were postcoded, integrated with census data, and then classified as urban or rural. Rural postcode sectors, ranked by proportion of oil workers, were grouped into three categories with similar numbers of children but contrasting densities of oil workers. The incidence of leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was examined in these rural (and also in urban) categories in the periods 1974-8, 1979-83 and 1984-8. SETTING--Scotland. SUBJECTS--Young people below age 25. RESULTS--A significant excess of leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was found in 1979-83 in the group of rural home areas with the largest proportion of oil workers, following closely on large increases in the workforce. The area near the Dounreay nuclear installation, where an excess of leukaemia is already well known, was within the rural high oil category. CONCLUSION--The findings support the infection hypothesis that population mixing can increase the incidence of childhood leukaemia in rural areas. They also suggest that the recent excess in the Dounreay-Thurso area is due to population mixing linked to the oil industry, promoted by certain unusual local demographic factors.

The epidemiology of HIV infection in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau

Abstract: ObjectivesTo determine the prevalence of HIV infection and its relationship to age, sex and other factors.Design and settingCross-sectional survey of a rural community in Guinea-Bissau.MethodsQuestionnaire-administration and screening of sera from subjects aged >m; 15 years.ResultsOf the 2770 subjec

The nature and limits of the Sub-Saharan African AIDS epidemic: evidence from geographic and other patterns.

Abstract: Heterosexual vaginal intercourse is almost completely sustaining the sub-Saharan HIV/AIDS epidemic. Ecological evidence and Kenyan and Ugandan medical studies show that the lack of male circumcision places individuals and whole societies at increased risk of genital ulcer disease and therefore of HIV/AIDS. Large male surpluses in urban areas prostitutes being the object of premarital and extramarital sex and poverty have contributed to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in East and Southern Africa. Poverty kept prostitutes and their clients from seeking treatment for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). They form a core HIV/AIDS group largely centered in urban areas. Rural areas are not witnessing and are unlikely to witness as high levels of HIV/AIDS as urban areas because commercial sex is less prevalent and rural community and family structures have more control over males nonmarital sexual activities and over women wanting to become prostitutes. In fact both men and women migrate to urban areas to flee this control. Continued reinfection from the towns as migrants and visitors return fuel rural HIV/AIDS levels. High HIV/AIDS levels in rural southwest Uganda and northwest Tanzania are likely due to the proximity of highways near Lake Victoria to boat transport and smuggling on the lake and to the ways of life of those involved. A lower-level HIV/AIDS epidemic reaches from Kinshasa through the Congo to Gabon Rio Muni and Cameroon. Geographic areas or social groups with high levels of STDs sustain endemic chancroid which is probably a cofactor of HIV/AIDS. Chancroid will probably spread rapidly in the noncircumcising belt (Sudd in Sudan to the southwest coast of Namibia 6000 km long and about 1000 km wide) because noncircumcised husbands infect their wives with chancroid or another genital ulcerative disease. The HIV/AIDS epidemic will probably not engulf all of sub-Saharan Africa at high levels but be largely restricted to the noncircumcised belt.

Urban–rural differences in the associations between social deprivation and psychiatric service utilization in schizophrenia and all diagnoses: a case-register study in Northern Italy

Abstract: Service utilization measures from the psychiatric case registers for urban South-Verona and rural Portogruaro in North East Italy for the period 1983-9 were used to identify associations with socio-demographic variables from the 1981 census in schizophrenia and related disorders as well as in all diagnoses. The patterns of service use were broadly similar, except that Portogruaro has significantly more community contacts, and has about twice the treated incidence and prevalence of schizophrenia. The census data showed that unmarried and unemployed people were more likely to live alone in the urban than in the rural area. In South-Verona the most strongly associated predictor variables, both for schizophrenia and all diagnoses, are: living alone, unemployment, percentage of the total population who are dependents and the percentage who are divorced, separated or widowed. In contrast, in Portogruaro there were no consistent associations between census and service use variables. Stepwise multiple regression models using three census predictor variables accounted for over 85% of the variance in South-Verona utilization rates. The results indicate that the strongly predictive associations previously described in England hold in urban South-Verona, but not in rural Portogruaro, and may be related to the effect of cities in clustering seriously disabled psychiatric patients in areas of low-cost housing where they live in relative social isolation.

Achievement Evaluation of Colombia's "Escuela Nueva": Is Multigrade the Answer?

Abstract: In the mid 1980s, half of Colombia's rural schools did not offer complete primary education and more than half of rural children between the ages of 7 and 9 had never attended school. Unitary schools - multigrade classrooms taught by one teacher - were established in the early 1960s in isolated rural areas with few students. However, when efforts were made to expand the program nationally several problems became apparent - with teacher training, with the automatic promotion system, and with the relevance of course content to rural life. Escuela Nueva was created in 1976 as an official improvement on the unitary school. By 1989 enrollment increased to 17,948 schools, serving 800,000 students. Escuela Nueva is a rural school in which one or two teachers offer all five years of primary education in or two multigrade classrooms. Promotion is flexible, but not automatic. Special instruction materials are used which encourage the practical application of what is learned to life in a rural community. The system supports peer instruction, with older students coaching younger ones. The schools have study corners focused on different subject areas and a small library that also functions as a community information center. Many activities are designed to involve parents in support of their child's learning. The authors found that Escuela Nueva had significantly improved student outcomes, community participation as well as reducing dropout rates.

Rural doctor recruitment: does medical education in rural districts recruit doctors to rural areas?

Abstract: The impact of the University of Tromso Medical School on the distribution of doctors in rural areas in northern Norway was evaluated by a postal questionnaire. The survey covered 11 graduation years (417 doctors), and the response rate was 84.2%. The establishment of a new medical school in northern Norway has clearly had beneficial effects: a total of 56.1% of the graduates stay in these remote areas. Of those who also spent their youth in northern Norway the proportion is 82.0%, compared to graduates who lived in the southern parts of the country while growing up (37.7%). The results clearly demonstrate that one of the main goals for the Medical School at the University in Tromso, to educate doctors who prefer to work in these rural areas, has been accomplished.

Urbanization and human health

Abstract: Urbanization involves a physical change in which increasing proportions of populations live in urban settings, however defined. It also implies considerable changes in the ways in which these people live, how they earn their livelihoods, the food which they eat, and the wide range of environmental factors to which they are exposed. There is another underlying assumption that, increasingly, urban populations will be more healthy than their rural counterparts and that higher levels of urbanization will equate with better health status. This paper discusses some of the assumptions underlying this contention. It takes issue with certain of them, particularly the assumption that urbanization affects the health of all residents equally. It is manifestly evident that in many cities, particularly in the developing world, the poor are exposed to greater risks and have much lower health status than their richer neighbours. In addition, whilst urban residents may theoretically have a better access to health care and services than do residents in many rural areas, and whilst many indicators of health do appear better in more highly urbanized societies than ones less so, there are caveats. The paper introduces the concept of epidemiological transition, which suggests that, whilst life expectancy might be higher in many urbanized countries and in certain cities, the inhabitants are often merely suffering from different forms of ill-health, often chronic or degenerative, rather than infective. In certain cities in middle-income countries, residents, particularly the poor, are exposed to a double risk of both infection and chronic degenerative ailments. The paper concludes with a consideration of more general recent statements from the World Health Organization among others, on the impact of urbanization on health. The 'Healthy Cities' project is also discussed. WHO identifies a range of general determinants of urban health: physical, social, cultural and environmental. Many represent the by-products of modernization and especially industrialization. It is emphasized that urbanization, and the concentration of human beings into new areas in particular, can bring exposure to new risk factors for large numbers of people. The growth of infectious and parasitic disease in some urban settings must therefore be recognized, as must the emergence of chronic diseases, with the concomitant need for investment in new types of health and social care. However, a number of constraints militate against the achievement of improved urban health, especially in developing countries.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Rapid Decline in Child Mortality in a Rural Area of Senegal

Abstract: Retrospective and prospective demographic and health data collected on the population of Mlomp (6352 people in 1985) a rural area of Senegal show that the probability of dying before the age of 5 years declined from 350 to 81 deaths/100 livebirths in the last 25 years. This decline is greater and faster than ever observed in Senegal. The drop in mortality mainly results from improved access to new and efficient health services--a dispensary and a maternity clinic--and from growth surveillance health education vaccination and malaria programs initiated in the 1960s and 1970s. Although socioeconomic conditions have changes in the area the influence of classical factors such as womens educational level and improvement in transportation has probably been limited. Deaths from diseases that can be prevented by immunization (such as neonatal tetanus measles whooping cough) are now very rare (3% of deaths of children under 5 years during the period 1985-89). Although the risks of dying from diarrhea or acute respiratory infections are much lower than in other rural areas of Senegal these are still the main causes of deaths (33% and 19% of deaths after 1 month of age). Malaria despite its high morbidity during the rainy season causes few deaths (4%). This reflects the success of the health education program promoting chemoprophylaxis and early treatment of fever cases. Mlomp is one example of an African rural area where the provision of well-organized health services at a reasonable cost has produced a dramatic decline in child mortality. (authors)

A malaria control trial using insecticide-treated bed nets and targeted chemoprophylaxis in a rural area of The Gambia, West Africa 4. Perceptions of the causes of malaria and of its treatment and prevention in the study area

Abstract: Perceptions of the causes of malaria, its treatment and prevention were studied among 996 adults, selected randomly from 73 villages and hamlets in a rural area of The Gambia. Structured questionnaires and other interview techniques were used for data collection. Malaria has no specific name in the study area; it is referred to commonly as Fula kajewo (Fula fever). Only 28% of the respondents knew that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. However, most people believed correctly that August to October was the main malaria season. Eighty-six per cent of the subjects were bed net users. The majority of nets were produced locally, usually white in colour and made of sheeting fabrics. Usage of nets was correlated with ethnic group, age and polygamy but not with education, income, occupation or ownership of certain items which indicate high social status. Analysis of expenditure on mosquito coils indicated that non-users of nets spent 43% more on coils than did users. Bed nets have been used for a long time in the study area; 98% of users saw their parents using them during their childhood.

Network Activities, Information and Competitiveness in Small Firms

Abstract: Flexible manufacturing networks are currently receiving much attention as a competitive strategy, especially in small cities and rural areas, where a large amount of manufacturing occurs in the USA...

A dog ecology study in an urban and a semi-rural area of Zambia.

Abstract: Characteristics of dog populations and their accessibility for rabies vaccination were compared in an urban and a semi-rural area in Zambia. A total of 1,190 households were interviewed. In the urban study area (Mutendere, a low income suburb of Lusaka) only 11% of the households kept dogs with a dog:human ratio of 1:45. In the semi-rural area (Palabana) dogs were kept by 42% of households with a dog:human ratio of 1:6,7. In conjuction with the study of the dog populations in these two areas, immunization of dogs against rabies was provided by door-to-door visits in both study areas and also through central point vaccination in the urban area. The attitude of the public towards free rabies vaccinations was positive, although some misconceptions regarding indications and modalities of treatment following exposure to suspect dogs were found. Approximately 50% of the dog removals were as a result of disease and the demand for dogs was higher than the supply. Although only information on the owned segment of the dog population was obtained during the study, the proportion of ownerless dogs appeared to be very low. Generally, there is a need for better co-ordination between the different services involved in rabies control in Zambia to enhance the sustainability of vaccination programmes and improve the treatment of persons bitten by dogs.

Roads are Not Enough: New Perspectives on Rural Transport Planning in Developing Countries

Abstract: FOREWORD vii 1. Introduction 1 2. The evolution of rural transport theory and policy 2 Limitations of the conventional rural transport model 3 The new approach 7 3. The community-level studies 10 Background characteristics of the study areas 10 Methodology 11 The findings of the studies 12 The wider picture 31 Conclusion 37 4. Towards more appropriate rural transport policies 39 The scope of rural transport policy 39 Intermediate means of transport 41 Development of the local transport infrastructure 55 Transport services 60 Reducing the need for rural travel and transport 64 The complementarity of interventions to address rural transport problems 70 5. Transport and rural development 74 REFERENCES 76

Internal migration, urbanization, and population distribution

Abstract: Information was provided on the major characteristics trends differences and determinants of internal migration urbanization and population distribution in sub-Saharan Africa. African mobility has been described as circulation migration (short-term periodic movements long-term movements and seasonal movements) and as definitive migration (irregular movements and permanent movements). A brief overview of the types of literature on migration the number of empirical studies and the major issues addressed was provided. The most common movements were intrarural. Although nomadism has been a dominant life style in Africa there has been increased emphasis on sedentarization and permanent resettlement rather than spontaneous migration. The motivation in rural areas has been the search for new lands. The long-term trend toward spatial redistribution has been most affected by rural to urban migration. The motivation has been the search for better health care educational opportunities and availability of jobs. There has been periodic return migration during peak agricultural seasons among retirees and among unsuccessful urban migrants. There has been limited interurban movement. Remittances sent home were used to assure a receptive community for potential return migration. The peak age of migrants was 20-24 years. During the 1960s and 1970s males dominated migration flows. However during the 1980s more women were migrating either with husbands or in associative migrations. Some have contended that autonomous female migration was more important than associative migration in recent times. Higher income and educational status have played a role in migration. Many determinants of migration have been identified. Those discussed in this article as preeminent were external factors (global political and economic conditions) government policies and programs community factors household decisions and environmental and resource factors. In Africa urbanization preceded industrialization and urban population has concentrated in primary cities. The rate of urban growth during 1985-90 was 5%. Eastern Africa has been the least urbanized but three eastern African countries are expected to be over 50% urban by 2000. Natural increase and migration have contributed to urban growth. Population density varied widely by country and has increased since 1975.

Demographic and socioeconomic determinants of female rural to urban migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Abstract: Data from the 1986-90 Demographic and Health Surveys of Burundi Ghana Kenya Mali Nigeria Senegal Togo and Uganda were used to examine the impact of fertility child mortality and socioeconomic and demographic factors on female rural-urban migration of six months or more duration. Several principles appear to direct the migration of high fertility women. High parity women are free from the male demands for more children. Rural areas lack basic amenities such as schools health services and modern housing. Additional children may strain family resources and require additional income from other sources. Husband and kin may have already moved. All data are nationally representative with the exception of Uganda with an 80% sample. Women living in rural areas two years prior to the survey were included in the sample. Fertility and mortality data pertain to children aged under five years in the period two to seven years before the survey year. Multinomial logit analysis was based on an analytical model developed by Goldstein and Goldstein. High fertility was found to deter female migration to either urban or rural areas. Women who had one surviving child aged under five years were significantly less likely to move to urban areas only in Nigeria and Senegal and to other villages in Burundi compared to women without a recent birth. Women with two or more surviving children were significantly less likely (by 43-75%) to move to urban areas in five out of seven countries. Moves to rural areas were less likely by 36-61% in six out of eight countries. The evidence does not suggest that the reason for moves is to advance the childrens material or physical well-being. The number of births particularly in Kenya where fertility is very high in rural areas acts as a deterrent to migration. Child mortality only constrains moves to urban areas. Unmarried women single women better educated women and adults in their 20s are more likely to move to urban areas.

Rural Distress and Survival: The School and the Importance of "Community.".

Abstract: This reportaddresses community andeducational issues of rural America as the United States enters the 1990s. Beginning with thecollapse of the mining industry in a small, rural community inIdaho, it is shown that rural communities and theirschools face great hardships resulting from numerous complex, interacting economic and socialconditions. But ruralpeople areresourceful. Many communities are beginning to employ creativesolutions to solve theirsocial and economic concerns. In small, rural communities, a closerlook at how the school can servecommunitydevelopment needs is underway. However, the school appears to bea powerful, but under-utilized resource. Three general approaches for using the school as a catalyst for community development are described: School As Community Center, Community As Curriculum, andSchool-Based Economic Development. Several programs, notably Foxfire, REAL, and the work of the McREL's Rural Institute, havedemonstrated the benefits to begainedwhen theschool directly serves the needsof the community.

Malaria in urban and rural Kinshasa: the entomological input

Abstract: Mosquitoes were collected on human bait over a 16-month period (September 1988 to December 1989) in an urban and a rural area of Kinshasa, Zaire. P. falciparum malaria sporozoite rates were determined by ELISA. In the urban area Culex quinquefasciatus accounts for 96% of the 121 bites/person/night (b/p/n). The only anopheline is Anopheles gambiae, sensu stricto, with an average of 5.1 b/p/n and a sporozoite rate of 1.86%. The entomological inoculation rate (EIR) averages 0.08 infective b/p/n. Malaria transmission is almost interrupted at the end of the dry season. In the rural area mosquito nuisance is small (20 b/p/n), almost entirely due to six species of Anopheles including four vectors of malaria: An.gambiae (13.3 b/p/n), An.funestus (2.4 b/p/n), An.nili (0.4 b/p/n) and An.brunnipes (0.7 b/p/n) with mean sporozoite rates of 7.85%, 6.60%, 6.63% and 0.53% respectively. An.paludis (0.4 b/p/n) and An.hancocki (0.2 b/p/n) were not found infective. Malaria transmission is intense and perennial: the overall EIR varies monthly between 0.60 and 3.29 infective b/p/n. The specific contributions of An.gambiae, An.funestus and An.nili average 1.07, 0.14 and 0.03 infective b/p/n respectively. Malaria transmission peaks during the rainy season in both study areas. The daily mean survival rates for An.gambiae were 0.91 and 0.78 in the rural and urban area, respectively. All An.gambiae examined belonged to the forest cytotype (Coluzzi et al., 1979). Through its effect on the sporozoite rate, the higher vector survival rate in the rural environment appears to be the major determinant of the greater malaria transmission rate in the rural area as compared to urban Kinshasa.