Showing papers by "David P. Farrington published in 2009"

Effects of early family/parent training programs on antisocial behavior and delinquency

Abstract: Based on evidence that early antisocial behavior is a key risk factor for delinquency and crime throughout the life course, early family/parent training, among its many functions, has been advanced as an important intervention/prevention effort. There are several theories concerning why early family/parent training may cause a reduction in child behavior problems including antisocial behavior and delinquency (and have other ancillary benefits in non-crime domains over the life course). The prevention of behavior problems is one of the many objectives of early family/parent training, and it comprises the main focus of this review. Results indicate that early family/parent training is an effective intervention for reducing behavior problems among young children, and the weighted effect size was 0.35. The results from a series of analog to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and weighted least squares regression models (with random effects) demonstrated that there were significant differences in the effect sizes of studies conducted in the USA versus those conducted in other countries and that studies that were based on samples smaller than 100 children had larger effect sizes. Sample size was also the strongest predictor of the variation in the effect sizes. Additional evidence indicated that early family/parent training was also effective in reducing delinquency and crime in later adolescence and adulthood. Overall, the findings lend support for the continued use of early family/parent training to prevent behavior problems. Future research should test the main theories of early family/parent training and detail more explicitly the causal mechanisms by which early family/parent training reduces delinquency and crime, and future evaluations should employ high quality designs with long-term follow-ups, including repeated measures of antisocial behavior, delinquency, and crime over the life course.

Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis

Abstract: In recent years, there has been a marked and sustained growth in the use of closed circuit television (CCTV) surveillance cameras to prevent crime in public places in the USA and other Western nations. Amidst this expansion and the associated public expenditure, as well as concerns about their efficacy and social costs, there is an increasing need for an evidence‐based approach to inform CCTV policy and practice. This paper reports on an updated systematic review and meta‐analysis of the effects of CCTV on crime in public places. Evaluations were included if CCTV was the main intervention and the design was of high methodological quality. Forty‐four evaluations met the inclusion criteria. The results suggest that CCTV caused a modest (16%) but significant decrease in crime in experimental areas compared with control areas. This overall result was largely driven by the effectiveness of CCTV schemes in car parks, which caused a 51% decrease in crime. Schemes in most other public settings had small and nonsi...

School-Based Programs to Reduce Bullying and Victimization: A Systematic Review

Abstract: BACKGROUND School bullying has serious short-term and long-term effects on children’s physical and mental health. Various anti-bullying programs have been implemented world wide and, more rarely, evaluated. Previous narrative reviews, summarizing the work done on bullying prevention, as well as previous meta-analyses of anti-bullying programs, are limited. The definition of school bullying includes several key elements: physical, verbal, or psychological attack or intimidation that is intended to cause fear, distress, or harm to the victim; an imbalance of power (psychological or physical), with a more powerful child (or children) oppressing less powerful ones; and repeated incidents between the same children over a prolonged period. School bullying can occur in school or on the way to or from school. It is not bullying when two persons of the same strength (physical, psychological, or verbal) victimize each other. OBJECTIVES This report presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of programs designed to reduce school bullying perpetration and victimization (i.e. being bullied). The authors indicate the pitfalls of previous reviews and explain in detail how the present systematic review and meta-analysis addresses the gaps in the existing literature on bullying prevention. SELECTION CRITERIA Studies were included in this review if they evaluated the effects of an anti-bullying program by comparing an experimental group who received the intervention with a control group who did not. The word ‘experimental’ here refers to students who received the program and does not necessarily imply randomization. Four types of research design were included: a) randomized experiments, b) experimental-control comparisons with before and after measures of bullying, c) other experimental-control comparisons and d) quasi-experimental age-cohort designs, where students of age X after the intervention were compared with students of the same age X in the same school before the intervention. Both published and unpublished (e.g. PhD theses) reports were included. 4 This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.

Drawing conclusions about causes from systematic reviews of risk factors: The Cambridge Quality Checklists

Abstract: Systematic reviews summarize evidence about the effects of social interventions on crime, health, education, and social welfare. Social scientists should also use systematic reviews to study risk factors, which are naturally occurring predictors of these outcomes. To do this, the quality of risk factor research needs to be evaluated. This paper presents three new methodological quality checklists to identify high-quality risk factor research. They are designed so that reviewers can separately summarize the best evidence about correlates, risk factors, and causal risk factors. Studies need appropriate samples and measures to draw valid conclusions about correlates. Studies need prospective longitudinal data to draw valid conclusions about risk factors. And, in the absence of experimental evidence, controlled studies need to compare changes in risk factors over time with changes in outcomes to draw valid conclusions about causal risk factors.

Family factors in the intergenerational transmission of offending.

Abstract: Background Convicted parents tend to have convicted children, but there have been few previous studies of transmission between three generations, especially including both records and interviews for hundreds of people. Method In the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (CSDD), 411 south London males have been followed up from age 8 to age 48. These males (generation 2, G2) are compared with their fathers and mothers (generation 1, G1), and with their biological sons and daughters (generation 3, G3). Results There was significant intergenerational transmission of convictions from G1 males to G2 males, and from G2 males to G3 males. Convictions of fathers still predicted convictions of sons after controlling for risk factors, but the predictive efficiency was reduced. Transmission was less from G1 females to G2 males, and from G2 males to G3 females. There was little evidence of intergenerational transmission from G1 to G3, except from grandmothers to granddaughters. Conclusions The intergenerational transmission of offending may be mediated by family, socio-economic and individual risk factors. Intervention to reduce intergenerational transmission could target these risk factors. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Development of adolescence‐limited, late‐onset, and persistent offenders from age 8 to age 48

Abstract: This article investigates the life success at ages 32 and 48 of four categories of males: nonoffenders, adolescence-limited offenders (convicted only at ages 10-20), late-onset offenders (convicted only at ages 21-50), and persistent offenders (convicted at both ages 10-20 and 21-50). In the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, 411 South London males have been followed up from age 8 to 48 in repeated personal interviews. There was considerable continuity in offending over time. Persistent offenders had the longest criminal careers (averaging 18.4 years), and most of them had convictions for violence. Persistent offenders were leading the most unsuccessful lives at ages 32 and 48, although all categories of males became more successful with age. By age 48, the life success of adolescence-limited offenders was similar to that of nonoffenders. The most important risk factors at ages 8-18 that predicted which offenders would persist after age 21 were heavy drinking at age 18, hyperactivity at ages 12-14, and low popularity and harsh discipline at ages 8-10. The most important risk factors that predicted which nonoffenders would onset after age 21 were poor housing and low nonverbal IQ at ages 8-10, high neuroticism at age 16, and anti-establishment attitudes and motoring convictions at age 18. It was suggested that nervousness and neuroticism may have protected children at risk from offending in adolescence and the teenage years.

Conduct Disorder, Aggression and Delinquency

Abstract: Conduct Disorder Aggression Delinquency Comorbidity and Versatility Risk Factors Successful Interventions Conclusions Keywords: conduct disorder; aggression; delinquency; risk factors; interventions

Effects of parental imprisonment on child antisocial behaviour and mental health: a systematic review

Abstract: Parental imprisonment can cause many problems for the family left behind, including difficulty organising childcare, loss of family income, trouble maintaining contact with the imprisoned parent, stigma, and home, school and neighbourhood moves. Children and parents can be distressed by the separation. Children may respond by acting out or becoming withdrawn, anxious or depressed. We conducted an exhaustive search for studies that examined children's antisocial behaviour and mental health after parental imprisonment. We found 16 studies with appropriate evidence. These studies all showed that children of prisoners are more likely than other children to show antisocial and mental health problems. However, it was unclear whether parental imprisonment actually caused these problems. They might have been caused by other disadvantages in children's lives that existed before parental imprisonment occurred. Children of prisoners are a vulnerable group. More research is required to determine whether or not parental imprisonment causes an increase in child antisocial behaviour and mental health problems.

What works in preventing bullying: effective elements of anti‐bullying programmes

Abstract: This paper summarises the results of a systematic review and meta‐analysis of the effectiveness of anti‐bullying programmes in schools. Extensive searches were carried out in 18 databases and in 35 journals. The number of reports on anti‐bullying programmes increased considerably over time. Nearly 600 reports were found, but only 59 of these (describing evaluations of 30 different programmes) were eligible for inclusion in our review because they described a high‐quality evaluation. We coded the elements of the intervention in these programmes and key features of the evaluation and related these to the effects of the intervention. These types of figures have never been presented in any previous systematic review or meta‐analysis of anti‐bullying programmes. Our meta‐analysis showed that school‐based anti‐bullying programmes are effective in reducing bullying and victimisation (being bullied), which were reduced by about 20‐23% in experimental schools, compared with control schools. The most important programme components that were associated with a decrease in bullying were parent training, improved playground supervision, disciplinary methods, school conferences, videos, information for parents, work with peers, classroom rules and classroom management.

Co-Offending, Age, Gender and Crime Type: Implications for Criminal Justice Policy

Abstract: It has long been reported that many crimes are committed in groups, yet few studies of co-offending exist. In this paper, we argue that large-scale information on the prevalence of co-offending and its variations across age, gender and crime type is essential for the development of criminological theory and for the accurate estimation of important criminal justice measures like the probability of conviction and the incapacitative effects of imprisonment. To this end, we present results from the most extensive multivariate analysis of co-offending available in the United Kingdom to date. Findings indicate that a minority of detected crime implicated multiple offenders, and that co-offending decreased with age, was greater for females and was most common for robbery and burglary. Age, gender and crime type independently predicted co-offending. Implications for criminal justice policy and theory are discussed.

The Development of Offending from Age 8 to Age 50: Recent Results from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development

Abstract: In the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, 411 males have been followed up from age 8 to age 50, in repeated personal interviews and criminal record searches. At age 48, 93 % of males were interviewed, and 41 % of males were convicted up to age 50. There were 39 self-reported offences for every conviction, on average. This article summarizes criminal careers, childhood risk factors at age 8–10, and adult life success outcomes at age 48. Males who desisted from offending before age 21 were similar to unconvicted males in their life success at age 48. These results suggest that crime can be reduced by interventions that target early childhood risk factors.

Gender Differences in Structured Risk Assessment : Comparing the Accuracy of Five Instruments

Abstract: Structured risk assessment should guide clinical risk management, but it is uncertain which instrument has the highest predictive accuracy among men and women. In the present study, the authors compared the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991, 2003); the Historical, Clinical, Risk Management-20 (HCR-20; C. D. Webster, K. S. Douglas, D. Eaves, & S. D. Hart, 1997); the Risk Matrix 2000-Violence (RM2000[V]; D. Thornton et al., 2003); the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG; V. L. Quinsey, G. T. Harris, M. E. Rice, & C. A. Cormier, 1998); the Offenders Group Reconviction Scale (OGRS; J. B. Copas & P. Marshall, 1998; R. Taylor, 1999); and the total previous convictions among prisoners, prospectively assessed prerelease. The authors compared predischarge measures with subsequent offending and instruments ranked using multivariate regression. Most instruments demonstrated significant but moderate predictive ability. The OGRS ranked highest for violence among men, and the PCL-R and HCR-20 H subscale ranked highest for violence among women. The OGRS and total previous acquisitive convictions demonstrated greatest accuracy in predicting acquisitive offending among men and women. Actuarial instruments requiring no training to administer performed as well as personality assessment and structured risk assessment and were superior among men for violence. Language: en

Childhood and Adolescent Predictors of Late Onset Criminal Careers

Abstract: This study explores the emergence of a criminal career in adulthood The main hypothesis tested is that late criminal onset (at age 21 or later) is influenced by early factors that delay antisocial manifestations The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (CSDD) was used to examine early determinants of criminal behavior 400 Inner London males were followed from ages 8-10 to 48-50, and were classified as follows: 35 late onsetters who were first convicted at age 21 or later, and did not have high self-reported delinquency at ages 10-14 and 15-18; 129 early onsetters first convicted between ages 10 and 20; and 236 unconvicted males Odds ratios and logistic regression analyses revealed that the best predictors of late onset offenders compared with early onset offenders included nervousness, having few friends at ages 8-10, and not having sexual intercourse by age 18 The best predictors of late onset offenders compared with nonoffenders included teacher-rated anxiousness at ages 12-14 and high neuroticism at age 16 It is concluded that being nervous and withdrawn protected boys against offending in adolescence but that these protective effects tended to wear off after age 21 These findings show that adult offending can be predicted from childhood, and suggest that early intervention might prevent a variety of maladjustment problems and difficulties in adult life

Is the antisocial child father of the abusive man? a 40-year prospective longitudinal study on the developmental antecedents of intimate partner violence*

Abstract: This prospective longitudinal study examined whether early childhood risk factors contributed to explaining and predicting intimate partner violence (IPV) in midadulthood. Participants included 202 men from the Cambridge longitudinal study who were in an intimate relationship in their mid-40s. Neuropsychological deficits and the presence of a criminogenic family environment were measured between ages 8 and 10. Antisocial behavior was measured between ages 8 and 18. IPV was measured at age 48 using a self-report instrument completed by the participants' female partners. Perpetration and victimization rates were relatively high; violence was mostly mutual, and men were more likely to be victims than perpetrators. Findings indicate that a criminogenic environment increases the risk of IPV by fostering the development of antisocial behavior and neuropsychological deficits. A link also exists between a high level of antisocial behavior during adolescence and the risk of IPV later in life. The results suggest the presence of both continuity and discontinuity of antisocial behavior as childhood risk factors that increase the likelihood of future involvement in IPV, but the role of these risk factors is modest.

Making Public Places Safer: Surveillance and Crime Prevention

Abstract: 1. Introduction PART I: POLITICS, THEORY, AND METHOD 2. The Politics of Surveillance for Crime Prevention 3. How Might Surveillance Measures Reduce Crime? 4. Evidence-Based Crime Prevention PART II: EVIDENCE OF EFFECTIVENESS 5. Closed-Circuit Television 6. Improved Street Lighting 7. Security Guards, Place Managers, and Defensible Space PART III: POLICY CHOICES AND CHALLENGES 8. Safer Streets, Safer Cities: Policy Choices for America 9. Conclusions and Future Directions Appendix: Methods of Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Notes References Index

Effects of Getting Married on Offending: Results from a Prospective Longitudinal Survey of Males

Abstract: In the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, 411 males were followed up from age 8 to age 48. This analysis of the effects of marriage on offending is based on 162 convicted males. The age of marriage was stratified into early (18—21 years), mid-range (22—24 years), and late (25 years or later). Risk factors at age 8—10 were used to calculate propensity scores that predicted the likelihood of getting married. Convictions before and after the age of first marriage were investigated for married males and for unmarried males who were matched on the number of convictions before marriage and on the propensity score. The results showed that getting married was followed by a reduction in offending but only for early (age 18—21) and mid-range (age 22—24) marriages. The analysis was replicated using risk factors at age 18, with the same results.

Reducing School Bullying: Evidence‐Based Implications for Policy

Abstract: School bullying is an important social problem with serious short‐term and long‐term implications for physical and mental health. Bullies tend to be aggressive and delinquent, whereas victims tend to be anxious and depressed. School‐based antibullying programs are effective in reducing bullying and being bullied. On average, bullying was reduced by 20–23 percent in experimental schools compared with control schools. The most important program components associated with a decrease in bullying are parent training, improved playground supervision, disciplinary methods, school conferences, videos, information for parents, classroom rules, and classroom management. The most important program elements associated with a decrease in being bullied are videos, disciplinary methods, work with peers, parent training, and cooperative group work. New antibullying programs should be designed, tested, and accredited on the basis of the most effective intervention components.

Can we make accurate long-term predictions about patterns of de-escalation in offending behavior?

Abstract: This study consists of a comparative analysis of patterns of de-escalation between ages 17–18 and 32, based on data from two well-known prospective longitudinal studies, the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (a study of 411 working-class males in London) and the Montreal Two Samples Longitudinal Study (a sample of 470 adjudicated French-Canadian males). Analyses focus on within-individual change, with individuals serving as their own controls. In this regard, the magnitude of measured change is relative to the past degree of involvement in offending. These results are contrasted with predictors of between-individual differences in offending behavior at age 32. We investigate the respective roles of cognitive predispositions and social bonds in the prediction of patterns of de-escalation, and assess whether it is possible to make relatively long-term predictions (over a 15-year period) about offending in adulthood. Findings suggest that traditional measures of social bonds and cognitive predispositions measured at age 17–18 are generally weak predictors of de-escalation up to age 32. However, these measures are stronger predictors of between-individual differences in offending gravity. These findings highlight the difficulties in making accurate long-term predictions about changes in individual offending patterns early in the criminal career.

How to Reduce School Bullying

Abstract: A systematic review was conducted of the 30 largest and highest quality controlled evaluations of antibullying programs. Most programs were effective. The prevalence of bullying and being bullied was reduced by an average of 20–23% in experimental schools compared to control schools. The most important program elements associated with a decrease in bullying and victimization were identified. A system for accrediting effective antibullying programs in schools was recommended.

Impact of antisocial lifestyle on health: chronic disability and death by middle age

Abstract: Background An antisocial lifestyle is associated with injury but also with less organic illness up to the age of 32. It is not known if these associations persist into the fifth decade. Methods Injury and illness data were collected prospectively in the longitudinal Cambridge study in delinquent development at age 43‐48. Hypotheses were that childhood predictors of antisocial behaviour and offending and antisocial behaviour at ages up to 32 would be associated with poorer health at age 48. Results Childhood and parental predictors of offending, self-reported delinquency at age 32 and convictions were significantly associated with death and disability by age 48. A model comprising three factors: any antisocial behaviour and any parental risk factor at age 8‐10 and any antisocial behaviour at age 27‐32 best discriminated death or disability. Two factors: conviction between ages 10‐18 and any antisocial behaviour at age 8‐10 discriminated almost as well. Conclusions Death and disability by age 48 were strongly associated with antisocial behaviour at ages 8‐10 and 27‐32, convictions and impulsivity during adolescence and parental predictors of offending at age 8‐10. Preventing childhood and adolescent antisocial behaviour and offending may also prolong life and prevent disability among those who would otherwise offend.

The nature and prevalence of bullying among boys and girls in croatian care institutions: a descriptive analysis of children’s homes and correctional homes

Abstract: No research to date has established reliable estimates of bullying behaviour in Croatian care institutions. Drawing upon conceptual and methodological conclusions from the prison-based research in the UK, the present study aimed to explore the nature and extent of indirect and direct bullying in a national sample of boys and girls from Croatian residential care facilities. The study also aimed to assess whether there were gender differences in the frequency and types of bullying as well as whether bullying was more prevalent and serious in Correctional Homes as opposed to in Children's Homes. The sample consisted of 601 young people aged 11 - 21 from 22 residential institutions in Croatia. Data was collected using an anonymous self-reported questionnaire. Residents were classified as bullies or victims if they reported at least one behaviour indicative of bullying others or being bullied two or three times a month or more often. With this definition, approximately three quarters of residents in both Children's Homes and Correctional Homes were involved in bullying either as victims (66.8% and 56.3% respectively) or as bullies (45.9% and 50.2% respectively). Indirect victimisation was more prevalent in Children Homes. In both samples, girls were significantly more likely than boys to be involved in indirect bullying either as victims or as perpetrators. In Correctional Homes, boys were significantly more likely than girls to bully directly. Although descriptive in nature, this study is the first to offer a comprehensive insight into bullying behaviour in Croatian residential care. As such, it should serve as a basis for future research.

A Review of the Effectiveness of Neighbourhood Watch

Abstract: The current paper presents the results of a systematic review of evaluations of neighbourhood watch. The review was conducted as part of the Campbell Collaboration Crime and Justice Group research on the effectiveness of criminal justice interventions. The main finding of the review was that about half of the schemes evaluated showed that neighbourhood watch was effective in reducing crime. However, just under half showed no evidence of success. An analysis of variations in outcome by features of the study, methods used and type of scheme showed some correlations with outcome. The paper concludes that future evaluation reports of neighbourhood watch should present more information on the features of the schemes and the method of analysis used to determine the source of variations in outcome, and to enable systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Why Are Boys More Likely to Be Referred to Juvenile Court? Gender Differences in Official and Self-Reported Delinquency

Abstract: This research aimed to investigate explanations of gender differences in referrals to juvenile court. In the Seattle Social Development Project, a prospective longitudinal survey of 808 youths, annual data on court referrals and self-reported offending were collected between ages 11 and 17. Boys were more likely than girls to be referred to juvenile court, and boys committed more offenses than girls according to self-reports. In general, the probability of a self-reported offense being followed by a court referral was similar for boys and girls, indicating that male offenders were more likely to be referred to court primarily because they committed more offenses than female offenders. The exception was that boys were more likely to be referred to court after each aggressive offense, but this gender difference disappeared after taking into account that boys were more rebellious, more likely to be gang members, and more likely to carry guns. These results suggest that gender differences in rates of court referral are unlikely to be attributable to gender biases in law enforcement or juvenile justice processing.

Developmental and Life-Course Criminology

Abstract: This chapter provides a brief overview of developmental and life-course criminology. These approaches are concerned with the study of the development of offending over the course of one's life, from onset to persistence and, eventually, desistance. Although these two theoretical approaches share many common features, they have distinctive focal concerns. Stemming from the field of sociology, the life-course perspective focuses attention on social structure and life events. The developmental approach, on the other hand, stems from the field of psychology and generally emphasizes the role of individual and psychological factors in the explanation of developmental processes. Moreover, the developmental approach investigates the onset of offending as well as the role of early risk and protective factors in the explanation of future offending. Meanwhile, the life-course framework examines the influence of turning points in offending trajectories and in the process of desistance from crime.

Marginal and Random Intercepts Models for Longitudinal Binary Data With Examples From Criminology

Abstract: Two models for the analysis of longitudinal binary data are discussed: the marginal model and the random intercepts model. In contrast to the linear mixed model (LMM), the two models for binary data are not subsumed under a single hierarchical model. The marginal model provides group-level information whereas the random intercepts model provides individual-level information including information about heterogeneity of growth. It is shown how a type of numerical averaging can be used with the random intercepts model to obtain group-level information, thus approximating individual and marginal aspects of the LMM. The types of inferences associated with each model are illustrated with longitudinal criminal offending data based on N = 506 males followed over a 22-year period. Violent offending indexed by official records and self-report were analyzed, with the marginal model estimated using generalized estimating equations and the random intercepts model estimated using maximum likelihood. The results show th...

Effects of parental imprisonment on child antisocial behaviour and mental health

Abstract: Parental imprisonment can cause many problems for the family left behind, including difficulty organising childcare, loss of family income, trouble maintaining contact with the imprisoned parent, stigma, and home, school and neighbourhood moves. Children and parents can be distressed by the separation. Children may respond by acting out or becoming withdrawn, anxious or depressed. We conducted an exhaustive search for studies that examined children's antisocial behaviour and mental health after parental imprisonment. We found 16 studies with appropriate evidence. These studies all showed that children of prisoners are more likely than other children to show antisocial and mental health problems. However, it was unclear whether parental imprisonment actually caused these problems. They might have been caused by other disadvantages in children's lives that existed before parental imprisonment occurred. Children of prisoners are a vulnerable group. More research is required to determine whether or not parental imprisonment causes an increase in child antisocial behaviour and mental health problems.

Introduction: the unusualness and contribution of life span longitudinal studies of aggressive and criminal behavior

Abstract: Prospective longitudinal studies of violent and criminal behavior have been reviewed by Farrington [2007, Appendix] and Farrington and Welsh [2007, Appendix to Chapter 2]. These authors focused on longitudinal surveys of hundreds of people in community samples, spanning at least 5 years, including repeated personal contacts with the participants, and publishing findings on violent or criminal behavior. They found that only 35 major surveys of this type had ever been conducted. Of these, only 10 studies have thus far followed up participants into their 40s. In organizing this special section, the collaborative aim of the four lead authors of the included articles (Lars Bergman, David Farrington, Rowell Huesmann, and Lea Pulkkinen) was to bring together results from the most noteworthy of these surveys. We excluded the Danish birth cohort study of Brennan et al. [2000] because it was largely based on police records, as opposed to personal contacts with participants. We excluded the Young Lawbreakers as Adults Study of Lang et al. [2002] because of its case–control design, comparing delinquent and control males. We wanted to focus on surveys of community samples. We excluded the Cambridge–Somerville Youth Study of McCord [1991] because unfortunately Joan McCord had passed away. We excluded the UK National Survey of Health and Development of Wadsworth [1991] because that only collected criminal record data up to age 21. Regarding the Kauai longitudinal study [Werner and Smith, 2001], we invited Emmy Werner to submit an article, but unfortunately she was unable to do so because of illness. Regarding the Montreal longitudinal study of adolescents [Le Blanc and Frechette, 1989], we invited Marc Le Blanc to submit an article, but unfortunately he declined because of his retirement. This special section therefore presents results obtained in the four life span longitudinal studies directed by the four lead authors. Long-term surveys are needed to investigate the development of aggression and criminal behavior, risk and protective factors at different ages, and the effects of life events on the course of development [Farrington, 2003]. Because of recent interest in categories of offenders [Moffitt, 2006], we agreed that we would all identify adolescence-limited and persistent offending or aggression in our surveys, but we would add a new category of adult-onset offending if data were available. Previous studies have been focused on the antecedents of offending, but we agreed that we would investigate the later life outcomes of these different categories of offenders, compared with nonoffenders. We also agreed that we would investigate predictors of these different categories at different ages. We hope that this special section contributes to knowledge in at least two distinct ways. First, based on four of the largest and most long-lasting longitudinal surveys of aggressive and criminal behavior, this section presents the most extensive information available about the development of adolescencelimited, late-onset, and persistent offenders from childhood to adulthood. Second, because it is very unusual for several different researchers to carry out parallel analyses, this section establishes the extent to which findings about these different categories might be replicable in four different countries. We believe that it is very important to investigate the extent to which results are replicable in different contexts.

Clinician Perceptions of Childhood Risk Factors for Future Antisocial Behavior

Abstract: We asked 176 mental health clinicians to list factors that place a child at risk for engaging in future antisocial behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to do this in relationship to boys and girls. Listed factors were then coded into broad item categories using the Early Assessment Risk Lists (EARL). Of the 1,695 factors listed, 1,476 (87%) could be unambiguously classified under one discrete EARL factor category, providing support for the structure of the tools. Children's own antisocial behavior was seen as the most important factor, followed by experiencing abuse and having antisocial peers. In some cases, participants emphasized different risk factors for boys (e.g., having antisocial attitudes) and girls (e.g., low coping ability). The findings highlight the need to pay attention to client characteristics in developing risk assessment protocols and support continued efforts to bridge the gap between scientific research and clinical practice.