First-principles calculations have evolved from mere aids in explaining and supporting experiments to powerful tools for predicting new materials and their properties. In the first part of this review we describe the state-of-the-art computational methodology for calculating the structure and energetics of point defects and impurities in semiconductors. We will pay particular attention to computational aspects which are unique to defects or impurities, such as how to deal with charge states and how to describe and interpret transition levels. In the second part of the review we will illustrate these capabilities with examples for defects and impurities in nitride semiconductors. Point defects have traditionally been considered to play a major role in wide-band-gap semiconductors, and first-principles calculations have been particularly helpful in elucidating the issues. Specifically, calculations have shown that the unintentional n-type conductivity that has often been observed in as-grown GaN cannot be a...

First-principles calculations for defects and impurities: Applications to III-nitrides

Gallium nitride (GaN) and its allied binaries InN and AIN as well as their ternary compounds have gained an unprecedented attention due to their wide-ranging applications encompassing green, blue, violet, and ultraviolet (UV) emitters and detectors (in photon ranges inaccessible by other semiconductors) and high-power amplifiers. However, even the best of the three binaries, GaN, contains many structural and point defects caused to a large extent by lattice and stacking mismatch with substrates. These defects notably affect the electrical and optical properties of the host material and can seriously degrade the performance and reliability of devices made based on these nitride semiconductors. Even though GaN broke the long-standing paradigm that high density of dislocations precludes acceptable device performance, point defects have taken the center stage as they exacerbate efforts to increase the efficiency of emitters, increase laser operation lifetime, and lead to anomalies in electronic devices. The p...

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Luminescence properties of defects in GaN

In recent years, GaN nanorods are emerging as a very promising novel route toward devices for nano-optoelectronics and nano-photonics. In particular, core-shell light emitting devices are thought to be a breakthrough development in solid state lighting, nanorod based LEDs have many potential advantages as compared to their 2 D thin film counterparts. In this paper, we review the recent developments of GaN nanorod growth, characterization, and related device applications based on GaN nanorods. The initial work on GaN nanorod growth focused on catalyst-assisted and catalyst-free statistical growth. The growth condition and growth mechanisms were extensively investigated and discussed. Doping of GaN nanorods, especially p-doping, was found to significantly influence the morphology of GaN nanorods. The large surface of 3 D GaN nanorods induces new optical and electrical properties, which normally can be neglected in layered structures. Recently, more controlled selective area growth of GaN nanorods was realized using patterned substrates both by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Advanced structures, for example, photonic crystals and DBRs are meanwhile integrated in GaN nanorod structures. Based on the work of growth and characterization of GaN nanorods, GaN nanoLEDs were reported by several groups with different growth and processing methods. Core/shell nanoLED structures were also demonstrated, which could be potentially useful for future high efficient LED structures. In this paper, we will discuss recent developments in GaN nanorod technology, focusing on the potential advantages, but also discussing problems and open questions, which may impose obstacles during the future development of a GaN nanorod based LED technology.

GaN based nanorods for solid state lighting

Improved Ti-mask selective-area growth (SAG) by rf-plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy demonstrating extremely uniform GaN nanocolumn arrays

A semiconductor structure including a semiconductor substrate, at least one first crystalline epitaxial layer on the substrate, the first layer having a surface which is planarized, and at least one second crystalline epitaxial layer on the at least one first layer In another embodiment of the invention there is provided a semiconductor structure including a silicon substrate, and a GeSi graded region grown on the silicon substrate, compressive strain being incorporated in the graded region to offset the tensile strain that is incorporated during thermal processing In yet another embodiment of the invention there is provided a semiconductor structure including a semiconductor substrate, a first layer having a graded region grown on the substrate, compressive strain being incorporated in the graded region to offset the tensile strain that is incorporated during thermal processing, the first layer having a surface which is planarized, and a second layer provided on the first layer In still another embodiment of the invention there is provided a method of fabricating a semiconductor structure including providing a semiconductor substrate, providing at least one first crystalline epitaxial layer on the substrate, and planarizing the surface of the first layer

CONTROLLING THREADING DISLOCATION DENSITIES IN Ge ON Si USING GRADED GeSi LAYERS AND PLANARIZATION

The effect of the III/V ratio and substrate temperature on the morphology and properties of GaN- and AlN-layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy on Si(1 1 1)

Be-doped GaN layers have been grown on Si(111) by molecular beam epitaxy. The relative Be concentration was measured by secondary ion mass spectroscopy analysis. Photoluminescence spectra have been taken under continuous wave and time-resolved conditions. A new emission at 3.384 eV, which is probably related to substitutional Be, is reported, together with its first and second order phonon replica. Clear blue-shifts are observed when increasing temperature and excitation power, suggesting that this emission is associated with a transition from a residual donor to the Be acceptor. From time-resolved spectra, a very slow and strongly non-exponential decay, as well as a red-shift of the peak energy position with time, confirm the donor-acceptor character of the Be-related emission. The estimated ionization energy of the acceptor is around 90 meV, so Be is the shallowest p-dopant ever reported in GaN.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0268-1242/13/10/013/pdf

Experimental evidence for a Be shallow acceptor in GaN grown on Si(111) by molecular beam epitaxy

The characteristics of reactive ion etching of gallium nitride layers, using etching gas are investigated. The GaN etch rate is examined by varying the bias voltage and the flow rate of . For bias voltages in the range of 250 V to 400 V, the etch rate is found to increase with voltage, attaining a maximum rate of at 400 V. The rate also increases with increasing flow. The addition of an inert gas, Ar, or of a reactive gas, , is found to barely affect the etch rate. Surface morphology after etching is checked by atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, which show that the smoothness of the etched surface is comparable to that of the unetched, and the etched sidewall forms an angle of to the surface normal.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0268-1242/12/12/019/pdf

Reactive ion etching of GaN layers using

GaN layers have been grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy on AlN-buffered Si(111) substrates. An initial Al coverage of the Si substrate of aproximately 3 nm lead to the best AlN layers in terms of x-ray diffraction data, with values of full-width at half-maximum down to 10 arcmin. A (2×2) surface reconstruction of the AlN layer can be observed when growing under stoichiometry conditions and for substrate temperatures up to 850°C. Atomic force microscopy reveals that an optimal roughness of 4.6 nm is obtained for AlN layers grown at 850°C. Optimization in the subsequent growth of the GaN determined that a reduced growth rate at the beginning of the growth favors the coalescence of the grains on the surface and improves the optical quality of the film. Following this procedure, an optimum x-ray full-width at half-maximum value of 8.5 arcmin for the GaN layer was obtained. Si-doped GaN layers were grown with doping concentrations up to 1.7×1019 cm−3 and mobilities approximately 100 cm2/V s. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy measurements of Be-doped GaN films indicate that Be is incorporated in the film covering more than two orders of magnitude by increasing the Be-cell temperature. Optical activation energy of Be acceptors between 90 and 100 meV was derived from photoluminescence experiments.

Growth optimization and doping with Si and Be of high quality GaN on Si (111) by molecular beam epitaxy

We demonstrate the potential of low-loss electron energy-loss spectroscopy in transmission electron microscopy as a quick and straightforward method to determine the local indium compositions in (In,Ga)N/GaN nanowires. The (In,Ga)N/GaN nanowire heterostructures are grown by plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy on Si(111) substrates in a self-assembled way, and on patterned GaN templates in an ordered way. A wide range of indium contents is realized by varying the substrate temperatures. The plasmon peak in low-loss electron energy-loss spectroscopy exhibits a linear relation with respect to indium concentration in (In,Ga)N nanowires, allowing for a direct compositional analysis. The high spatial resolution of this method in combination with structural information from transmission electron microscopy will contribute to a basic understanding of the lattice pulling effect during (In,Ga)N/GaN nanowire growth.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-4484/23/48/485701/pdf

E. Calleja

Papers

The effect of the III/V ratio and substrate temperature on the morphology and properties of GaN- and AlN-layers grown by molecular beam epitaxy on Si(1 1 1)

Experimental evidence for a Be shallow acceptor in GaN grown on Si(111) by molecular beam epitaxy

Reactive ion etching of GaN layers using

Growth optimization and doping with Si and Be of high quality GaN on Si (111) by molecular beam epitaxy

Plasmon excitation in electron energy-loss spectroscopy for determination of indium concentration in (In,Ga)N/GaN nanowires.