Showing papers by "Lee Hartmann published in 2012"

The Spitzer Space Telescope Survey of the Orion A and B Molecular Clouds. I. A Census of Dusty Young Stellar Objects and a Study of Their Mid-infrared Variability

Abstract: We present a survey of the Orion A and B molecular clouds undertaken with the IRAC and MIPS instruments on board Spitzer. In total, five distinct fields were mapped, covering 9 deg^2 in five mid-IR bands spanning 3-24 μm. The survey includes the Orion Nebula Cluster, the Lynds 1641, 1630, and 1622 dark clouds, and the NGC 2023, 2024, 2068, and 2071 nebulae. These data are merged with the Two Micron All Sky Survey point source catalog to generate a catalog of eight-band photometry. We identify 3479 dusty young stellar objects (YSOs) in the Orion molecular clouds by searching for point sources with mid-IR colors indicative of reprocessed light from dusty disks or infalling envelopes. The YSOs are subsequently classified on the basis of their mid-IR colors and their spatial distributions are presented. We classify 2991 of the YSOs as pre-main-sequence stars with disks and 488 as likely protostars. Most of the sources were observed with IRAC in two to three epochs over six months; we search for variability between the epochs by looking for correlated variability in the 3.6 and 4.5 μm bands. We find that 50% of the dusty YSOs show variability. The variations are typically small (~0.2 mag) with the protostars showing a higher incidence of variability and larger variations. The observed correlations between the 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8 μm variability suggests that we are observing variations in the heating of the inner disk due to changes in the accretion luminosity or rotating accretion hot spots.

Dust Filtration by Planet-induced Gap Edges: Implications for Transitional Disks

Abstract: By carrying out two-dimensional two-fluid global simulations, we have studied the response of dust to gap formation by a single planet in the gaseous component of a protoplanetary disk—the so-called dust filtration mechanism. We have found that a gap opened by a giant planet at 20 AU in an α = 0.01, disk can effectively stop dust particles larger than 0.1 mm drifting inward, leaving a submillimeter (submm) dust cavity/hole. However, smaller particles are difficult to filter by a gap induced by a several M J planet due to (1) dust diffusion and (2) a high gas accretion velocity at the gap edge. Based on these simulations, an analytic model is derived to understand what size particles can be filtered by the planet-induced gap edge. We show that a dimensionless parameter Ts /α, which is the ratio between the dimensionless dust stopping time and the disk viscosity parameter, is important for the dust filtration process. Finally, with our updated understanding of dust filtration, we have computed Monte Carlo radiative transfer models with variable dust size distributions to generate the spectral energy distributions of disks with gaps. By comparing with transitional disk observations (e.g., GM Aur), we have found that dust filtration alone has difficulties depleting small particles sufficiently to explain the near-IR deficit of moderate transitional disks, except under some extreme circumstances. The scenario of gap opening by multiple planets studied previously suffers the same difficulty. One possible solution is to invoke both dust filtration and dust growth in the inner disk. In this scenario, a planet-induced gap filters large dust particles in the disk, and the remaining small dust particles passing to the inner disk can grow efficiently without replenishment from fragmentation of large grains. Predictions for ALMA have also been made based on all these scenarios. We conclude that dust filtration with planet(s) in the disk is a promising mechanism to explain submm observations of transitional disks but it may need to be combined with other processes (e.g., dust growth) to explain the near-IR deficit of some systems.

A ∼ 0.2-solar-mass protostar with a Keplerian disk in the very young L1527 IRS system

Abstract: In the earliest stage of star formation, protostars accrete mass from their surrounding envelopes through circumstellar disks; observations of the protostar L1527 IRS find a large, rotating proto-planetary disk from which the protostellar mass is measured to be 0.19 solar masses, with a protostar-to-envelope mass ratio of about 0.2. This paper reports the use of submillimetre interferometry to obtain the first detection of a large Keplerian disk around a protostar in the earliest phase of evolution, the class 0 phase. Hitherto the smallest observed protostar-to-envelope mass ratio was about 2.1. The newly discovered protostar, L1527 IRS, has a mass of approximately 0.2 solar masses and a protostar-to-envelope mass ratio of about 0.2. L1527 already has a proto-planetary disk of at least seven Jupiter masses, similar to presumed planet-forming disks, so it appears to have all the elements of a solar system in the making. In their earliest stages, protostars accrete mass from their surrounding envelopes through circumstellar disks. Until now, the smallest observed protostar-to-envelope mass ratio was about 2.1 (ref. 1). The protostar L1527 IRS is thought to be in the earliest stages of star formation2. Its envelope contains about one solar mass of material within a radius of about 0.05 parsecs (refs 3, 4), and earlier observations suggested the presence of an edge-on disk5. Here we report observations of dust continuum emission and 13CO (rotational quantum number J = 2 → 1) line emission from the disk around L1527 IRS, from which we determine a protostellar mass of 0.19 ± 0.04 solar masses and a protostar-to-envelope mass ratio of about 0.2. We conclude that most of the luminosity is generated through the accretion process, with an accretion rate of about 6.6 × 10−7 solar masses per year. If it has been accreting at that rate through much of its life, its age is approximately 300,000 years, although theory suggests larger accretion rates earlier6, so it may be younger. The presence of a rotationally supported disk is confirmed, and significantly more mass may be added to its planet-forming region as well as to the protostar itself in the future.

Challenges in Forming Planets by Gravitational Instability: Disk Irradiation and Clump Migration, Accretion, and Tidal Destruction

Abstract: We present two-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of self-gravitating protostellar disks subject to axisymmetric, continuing mass loading from an infalling envelope and irradiation from the central star to explore the growth of gravitational instability (GI) and disk fragmentation. We assume that the disk is built gradually and smoothly by the infall, resulting in good numerical convergence. We confirm that for disks around solar-mass stars, infall at high rates at radii beyond {approx}50 AU leads to disk fragmentation. At lower infall rates, however, irradiation suppresses fragmentation. We find that, once formed, the fragments or clumps migrate inward on typical type I timescales of {approx}2 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 3} yr initially, but with a stochastic component superimposed due to their interaction with the GI-induced spiral arms. Migration begins to deviate from the type I timescale when the clump becomes more massive than the local disk mass, and/or when the clump begins to form a gap in the disk. As they migrate, clumps accrete from the disk at a rate between 10{sup -3} and 10{sup -1} M{sub J} yr{sup -1}, consistent with analytic estimates that assume a 1-2 Hill radii cross section. The eventual fates of these clumps, however, diverge depending on the migration speed: 3more » out of 13 clumps in our simulations become massive enough (brown dwarf mass range) to open gaps in the disk and essentially stop migrating; 4 out of 13 are tidally destroyed during inward migration; and 6 out of 13 migrate across the inner boundary of the simulated disks. A simple analytic model for clump evolution explains the different fates of the clumps and reveals some limitations of two-dimensional simulations. Overall, our results indicate that fast migration, accretion, and tidal destruction of the clumps pose challenges to the scenario of giant planet formation by GI in situ, although we cannot address whether or not remnant solid cores can survive after tidal stripping. The models where the massive clumps are not disrupted and open gaps may be relevant to the formation of close binary systems similar to Kepler 16. A clump formed by GI-induced fragmentation can be as large as 10 AU and as luminous as 2 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -3} L{sub Sun }, which will be easily detectable with ALMA, but its lifetime before dynamically collapsing is only {approx}1000 years.« less

The missing cavities in the seeds polarized scattered light images of transitional protoplanetary disks: A generic disk model

Abstract: Transitional circumstellar disks around young stellar objects have a distinctive infrared deficit around 10 μm in their spectral energy distributions, recently measured by the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph (IRS), suggesting dust depletion in the inner regions. These disks have been confirmed to have giant central cavities by imaging of the submillimeter continuum emission using the Submillimeter Array (SMA). However, the polarized near-infrared scattered light images for most objects in a systematic IRS/SMA cross sample, obtained by HiCIAO on the Subaru telescope, show no evidence for the cavity, in clear contrast with SMA and Spitzer observations. Radiative transfer modeling indicates that many of these scattered light images are consistent with a smooth spatial distribution for μm-sized grains, with little discontinuity in the surface density of the μm-sized grains at the cavity edge. Here we present a generic disk model that can simultaneously account for the general features in IRS, SMA, and Subaru observations. Particularly, the scattered light images for this model are computed, which agree with the general trend seen in Subaru data. Decoupling between the spatial distributions of the μm-sized dust and mm-sized dust inside the cavity is suggested by the model, which, if confirmed, necessitates a mechanism, such as dust filtration, for differentiating the small and big dust in the cavity clearing process. Our model also suggests an inwardly increasing gas-to-dust ratio in the inner disk, and different spatial distributions for the small dust inside and outside the cavity, echoing the predictions in grain coagulation and growth models.

Rapid star formation and global gravitational collapse

Abstract: Most young stars in nearby molecular clouds have estimated ages of 1–2 Myr, suggesting that star formation is rapid. However, small numbers of stars in these regions with inferred ages of >rsim5–10 Myr have been cited to argue that star formation is instead a slow, quasi-static process. When considering these alternative pictures it is important to recognize that the age spread in a given star-forming cloud is necessarily an upper limit to the time-scales of local collapse, as not all spatially distinct regions will start contracting at precisely the same instant. Moreover, star-forming clouds may dynamically evolve on time-scales of a few Myr; in particular, global gravitational contraction will tend to yield increasing star formation rates with time due to generally increasing local gas densities. We show that two different numerical simulations of dynamic, flow-driven molecular cloud formation and evolution (1) predict age spreads for the main stellar population roughly consistent with observations and (2) raise the possibility of forming small numbers of stars early in cloud evolution, before global contraction concentrates the gas and the bulk of the stellar population is produced. In general, the existence of a small number of older stars among a generally much younger population is consistent with the picture of dynamic star formation and may even provide clues to the time evolution of star-forming clouds.

Complex Structure in Class 0 Protostellar Envelopes. III. Velocity Gradients in Non-axisymmetric Envelopes, Infall, or Rotation?

Abstract: We present an interferometric kinematic study of morphologically complex protostellar envelopes based on observations of the dense gas tracers N2H + and NH3. The strong asymmetric nature of most envelopes in our sample leads us to question the common interpretation of velocity gradients as rotation, given the possibility of projection effects in the observed velocities. Several “idealized” sources with well-ordered velocity fields and envelope structures are now analyzed in more detail. We compare the interferometric data to position–velocity (PV) diagrams of kinematic models for spherical rotating collapse and filamentary rotating collapse. For this purpose, we developed a filamentary parameterization of the rotating collapse model to explore the effects of geometric projection on the observed velocity structures. We find that most envelopes in our sample have PV structures that can be reproduced by an infalling filamentary envelope projected at different angles within the plane of the sky. The infalling filament produces velocity shifts across the envelope that can mimic rotation, especially when viewed at single-dish resolutions and the axisymmetric rotating collapse model does not uniquely describe any data set. Furthermore, if the velocities are assumed to reflect rotation, then the inferred centrifugal radii are quite large in most cases, indicating significant fragmentation potential or more likely another component to the line-center velocity. We conclude that ordered velocity gradients cannot be interpreted as rotation alone when envelopes are non-axisymmetric and that projected infall velocities likely dominate the velocity field on scales larger than 1000 AU.

The Low-mass Stellar Population in L1641: Evidence for Environmental Dependence of the Stellar Initial Mass Function

Abstract: We present results from an optical photometric and spectroscopic survey of the young stellar population in L1641, the low-density star-forming region of the Orion A cloud south of the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC). Our goal is to determine whether L1641 has a large enough low-mass population to make the known lack of high-mass stars a statistically significant demonstration of environmental dependence of the upper mass stellar initial mass function (IMF). Our spectroscopic sample consists of IR-excess objects selected from the Spitzer/IRAC survey and non-excess objects selected from optical photometry. We have spectral confirmation of 864 members, with another 98 probable members; of the confirmed members, 406 have infrared excesses and 458 do not. Assuming the same ratio of stars with and without IR excesses in the highly extincted regions, L1641 may contain as many as ∼1600 stars down to ∼0.1 M� , comparable within a factor of two to the ONC. Compared to the standard models of the IMF, L1641 is deficient in O and early B stars to a 3σ –4σ significance level, assuming that we know of all the massive stars in L1641. With a forthcoming survey of the intermediate-mass stars, we will be in a better position to make a direct comparison with the neighboring, dense ONC, which should yield a stronger test of the dependence of the high-mass end of the stellar IMF on environment.

On the nature of the Herbig B[e] star binary system V921 Scorpii: Geometry and kinematics of the circumprimary disk on sub-AU scales

Abstract: V921 Scorpii is a close binary system (separation 0025) showing the B[e]-phenomenon. The system is surrounded by an enigmatic bipolar nebula, which might have been shaped by episodic mass-loss events, possibly triggered by dynamical interactions between the companion and the circumprimary disk. In this paper, we investigate the spatial structure and kinematics of the circumprimary disk, with the aim to obtain new insights into the still strongly debated evolutionary stage. For this purpose, we combine, for the first time, infrared spectro-interferometry (VLTI/AMBER, λ/Δλ = 12, 000) and spectro-astrometry (VLT/CRIRES, λ/Δλ = 100, 000), which allows us to study the AU-scale distribution of circumstellar gas and dust with an unprecedented velocity resolution of 3 km s–1. Using a model-independent photocenter analysis technique, we find that the Brγ-line-emitting gas rotates in the same plane as the dust disk. We can reproduce the wavelength-differential visibilities and phases and the double-peaked line profile using a Keplerian-rotating disk model. The derived mass of the central star is 5.4 ± 0.4 M ☉ (d/1150 pc), which is considerably lower than expected from the spectral classification, suggesting that V921 Sco might be more distant (d ~ 2 kpc) than commonly assumed. Using the geometric information provided by our Brγ spectro-interferometric data and Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund line decrement measurements in 61 hydrogen recombination line transitions, we derive the density of the line-emitting gas (Ne = (2-6) × 1019 m–3). Given that our measurements can be reproduced with a Keplerian velocity field without an outflowing velocity component and the non-detection of age-indicating spectroscopic diagnostics, our study provides new evidence for the pre-main-sequence nature of V921 Sco.

On the structure of molecular clouds

Abstract: We show that the inter-cloud Larson scaling relation between mean volume density and size ρ ∝ R −1 , which in turn implies that mass M ∝ R 2 , or that the column density N is constant, is an artefact of the observational methods used. Specifically, setting the column density threshold near or above the peak of the column density probability distribution function NPDF (N ∼ 10 21 cm −2 ) produces the Larson scaling as long as the N-PDF decreases rapidly at higher column densities. We argue that the physical reasons behind local clouds to have this behaviour are that (1) this peak column density is near the value required to shield CO from photodissociation in the solar neighbourhood, and (2) gas at higher column densities is rare because it is susceptible to gravitational collapse into much smaller structures in specific small regions of the cloud. Similarly, we also use previous results to show that if instead a threshold is set for the volume density, the density will appear to be constant, implying thus that M ∝ R 3 . Thus, the Larson scaling relation does not provide much information on the structure of molecular clouds, and does not imply either that clouds are in Virial equilibrium, or have a universal structure. We also show that the slope of the M–R curve for a single cloud, which transitions from near-to-flat values for large radii to α = 2 as a limiting case for small radii, depends on the properties of the N-PDF.

The Low-mass Stellar Population in L1641: Evidence for Environmental Dependence of the Stellar Initial Mass Function

Abstract: We present results from an optical photometric and spectroscopic survey of the young stellar population in L1641, the low-density star-forming region of the Orion A cloud south of the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC). Our goal is to determine whether L1641 has a large enough low-mass population to make the known lack of high-mass stars a statistically-significant demonstration of environmental dependence of the upper mass stellar initial mass function (IMF). Our spectroscopic sample consists of IR-excess objects selected from the Spitzer/IRAC survey and non-excess objects selected from optical photometry. We have spectral confirmation of 864 members, with another 98 probable members; of the confirmed members, 406 have infrared excesses and 458 do not. Assuming the same ratio of stars with and without IR excesses in the highly-extincted regions, L1641 may contain as many as ~1600 stars down to ~0.1 solar mass, comparable within a factor of two to the the ONC. Compared to the standard models of the IMF, L1641 is deficient in O and early B stars to a 3-4 sigma significance level, assuming that we know of all the massive stars in L1641. With a forthcoming survey of the intermediate-mass stars, we will be in a better position to make a direct comparison with the neighboring, dense ONC, which should yield a stronger test of the dependence of the high-mass end of the stellar initial mass function upon environment.

Dust Filtration by Planet-Induced Gap Edges: Implications for Transitional Disks

Abstract: By carrying out two-dimensional two-fluid global simulations, we have studied the response of dust to gap formation by a single planet in the gaseous component of a protoplanetary disk - the so-called "dust filtration" mechanism. We have found that a gap opened by a giant planet at 20 AU in a \alpha=0.01, \dot{M}=10^{-8} Msun/yr disk can effectively stop dust particles larger than 0.1 mm drifting inwards, leaving a sub-millimeter dust cavity/hole. However, smaller particles are difficult to filter by a planet-induced gap due to 1) dust diffusion, and 2) a high gas accretion velocity at the gap edge. An analytic model is also derived to understand what size particles can be filtered by the gap edge. Finally, with our updated understanding of dust filtration, we have computed Monte-Carlo radiative transfer models with variable dust size distributions to generate the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of disks with gaps. By comparing with transitional disk observations (e.g. GM Aur), we have found that dust filtration alone has difficulties to deplete small particles sufficiently to explain the near-IR deficit of transitional disks, except under some extreme circumstances. The scenario of gap opening by multiple planets studied previously suffers the same difficulty. One possible solution is by invoking both dust filtration and dust growth in the inner disk. In this scenario, a planet induced gap filters large dust particles in the disk, and the remaining small dust particles passing to the inner disk can grow efficiently without replenishment from fragmentation of large grains. Predictions for ALMA have also been made based on all these scenarios. We conclude that dust filtration with planet(s) in the disk is a promising mechanism to explain submm observations of transitional disks but it may need to be combined with other processes (e.g. dust growth) to explain the near-IR deficit.

On the Nature of the Herbig B[e] Star Binary System V921?Scorpii: Discovery of a Close Companion and Relation to the Large-scale Bipolar Nebula

Abstract: Belonging to the group of B[e] stars, V921 Scorpii is associated with a strong infrared excess and permitted and forbidden line emission, indicating the presence of low- and high-density circumstellar gas and dust. Many aspects of V921 Sco and other B[e] stars still remain mysterious, including their evolutionary state and the physical conditions resulting in the class-defining characteristics. In this Letter, we employ Very Large Telescope Interferometer/AMBER spectro-interferometry in order to reconstruct high-resolution (λ/2B = 0. 0013) model-independent interferometric images for three wavelength bands around 1.65, 2.0, and 2.3 μm. In our images, we discover a close (25.0 ± 0.8 mas, corresponding to ∼29 ± 0.9 AU at 1.15 kpc) companion around V921 Sco. Between two epochs in 2008 and 2009, we measure orbital motion of ∼7 ◦ , implying an orbital period of ∼35 years (for a circular orbit). Around the primary star, we detect a disk-like structure with indications for a radial temperature gradient. The polar axis of this AU-scale disk is aligned with the arcminute-scale bipolar nebula in which V921 Sco is embedded. Using Magellan/IMACS imaging, we detect multi-layered arc-shaped substructure in the nebula, suggesting episodic outflow activity from the system with a period of ∼25 years, roughly matching the estimated orbital period of the companion. Our study supports the hypothesis that the B[e] phenomenon is related to dynamical interaction in a close binary system.

The Dependence of Star Formation Efficiency on Gas Surface Density

Abstract: Studies by Lada (2010) and Heiderman (2010) have suggested that star formation mostly occurs above a threshold in gas surface density Sigma of Sigma_c = 120 Msun pc^{-2} (A_K = 0.8). Heiderman infer a threshold by combining low-mass star-forming regions, which show a steep increase in the star formation rate per unit area Sigma_SFR with increasing Sigma, and massive cores forming luminous stars which show a linear relation. We argue that these observations do not require a particular density threshold. The steep dependence of Sigma_SFR, approaching unity at protostellar core densities, is a natural result of the increasing importance of self-gravity at high densities along with the corresponding decrease in evolutionary timescales. The linear behavior of Sigma_SFR vs. Sigma in massive cores is consistent with probing dense gas in gravitational collapse, forming stars at a characteristic free-fall timescale given by the use of a particular molecular tracer. The low-mass and high-mass regions show different correlations between gas surface density and the area A spanned at that density, with A=Sigma^{-3} for low-mass regions and A=Sigma^{-1} for the massive cores; this difference, along with the use of differing techniques to measure gas surface density and star formation, suggests that connecting the low-mass regions with massive cores is problematic. We show that the approximately linear relationship between dense gas mass and stellar mass used by Lada similarly does not demand a particular threshold for star formation, and requires continuing formation of dense gas. Our results are consistent with molecular clouds forming by galactic hydrodynamic flows with subsequent gravitational collapse.

The missing cavities in the SEEDS polarized scattered light images of transitional protoplanetary disks: a generic disk model

Abstract: Transitional circumstellar disks around young stellar objects have a distinctive infrared deficit around 10 microns in their Spectral Energy Distributions (SED), recently measured by the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph (IRS), suggesting dust depletion in the inner regions. These disks have been confirmed to have giant central cavities by imaging of the submillimeter (sub-mm) continuum emission using the Submillimeter Array (SMA). However, the polarized near-infrared scattered light images for most objects in a systematic IRS/SMA cross sample, obtained by HiCIAO on the Subaru telescope, show no evidence for the cavity, in clear contrast with SMA and Spitzer observations. Radiative transfer modeling indicates that many of these scattered light images are consistent with a smooth spatial distribution for micron-sized grains, with little discontinuity in the surface density of the micron-sized grains at the cavity edge. Here we present a generic disk model that can simultaneously account for the general features in IRS, SMA, and Subaru observations. Particularly, the scattered light images for this model are computed, which agree with the general trend seen in Subaru data. Decoupling between the spatial distributions of the micron-sized dust and mm-sized dust inside the cavity is suggested by the model, which, if confirmed, necessitates a mechanism, such as dust filtration, for differentiating the small and big dust in the cavity clearing process. Our model also suggests an inwardly increasing gas-to-dust-ratio in the inner disk, and different spatial distributions for the small dust inside and outside the cavity, echoing the predictions in grain coagulation and growth models.

On the nature of the Herbig B[e] star binary system V921 Scorpii: Discovery of a close companion and relation to the large-scale bipolar nebula

Abstract: Belonging to the group of B[e] stars, V921 Scorpii is associated with a strong infrared excess and permitted and forbidden line emission, indicating the presence of low- and high-density circumstellar gas and dust. Many aspects of V921 Sco and other B[e] stars still remain mysterious, including their evolutionary state and the physical conditions resulting in the class-defining characteristics. In this paper, we employ VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry in order to reconstruct high-resolution (lambda/2B=0.0013") model-independent interferometric images for three wavelength bands around 1.65, 2.0, and 2.3 micrometer. In our images, we discover a close (25.0+/-0.8 milliarcsecond, corresponding to 29+/-0.9 AU at 1.15 kpc) companion around V921 Sco. Between two epochs in 2008 and 2009, we measure orbital motion of 7 degrees, implying an orbital period of about 35 years (for a circular orbit). Around the primary star, we detect a disk-like structure with indications for a radial temperature gradient. The polar axis of this AU-scale disk is aligned with the arcminute-scale bipolar nebula in which V921 Sco is embedded. Using Magellan/IMACS imaging, we detect multi-layered arc-shaped sub-structure in the nebula, suggesting episodic outflow activity from the system with a period of about 25 years, roughly matching the estimated orbital period of the companion. Our study supports the hypothesis that the B[e] phenomenon is related to dynamical interaction in a close binary system.