A central question in cell biology is how membrane-spanning receptors transmit extracellular signals inside cells to modulate cell adhesion and motility. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a crucial signalling component that is activated by numerous stimuli and functions as a biosensor or integrator to control cell motility. Through multifaceted and diverse molecular connections, FAK can influence the cytoskeleton, structures of cell adhesion sites and membrane protrusions to regulate cell movement.

Focal adhesion kinase: in command and control of cell motility

The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) coordinates eukaryotic cell growth and metabolism with environmental inputs, including nutrients and growth factors. Extensive research over the past two decades has established a central role for mTOR in regulating many fundamental cell processes, from protein synthesis to autophagy, and deregulated mTOR signaling is implicated in the progression of cancer and diabetes, as well as the aging process. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of mTOR function, regulation, and importance in mammalian physiology. We also highlight how the mTOR signaling network contributes to human disease and discuss the current and future prospects for therapeutically targeting mTOR in the clinic.

mTOR Signaling in Growth, Metabolism, and Disease

Cells constantly adapt their metabolism to meet their energy needs and respond to nutrient availability. Eukaryotes have evolved a very sophisticated system to sense low cellular ATP levels via the serine/threonine kinase AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) complex. Under conditions of low energy, AMPK phosphorylates specific enzymes and growth control nodes to increase ATP generation and decrease ATP consumption. In the past decade, the discovery of numerous new AMPK substrates has led to a more complete understanding of the minimal number of steps required to reprogramme cellular metabolism from anabolism to catabolism. This energy switch controls cell growth and several other cellular processes, including lipid and glucose metabolism and autophagy. Recent studies have revealed that one ancestral function of AMPK is to promote mitochondrial health, and multiple newly discovered targets of AMPK are involved in various aspects of mitochondrial homeostasis, including mitophagy. This Review discusses how AMPK functions as a central mediator of the cellular response to energetic stress and mitochondrial insults and coordinates multiple features of autophagy and mitochondrial biology.

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AMPK: guardian of metabolism and mitochondrial homeostasis.

Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process induced under various conditions of cellular stress, which prevents cell damage and promotes survival in the event of energy or nutrient shortage and responds to various cytotoxic insults. Thus, autophagy has primarily cytoprotective functions and needs to be tightly regulated to respond correctly to the different stimuli that cells experience, thereby conferring adaptation to the ever-changing environment. It is now apparent that autophagy is deregulated in the context of various human pathologies, including cancer and neurodegeneration, and its modulation has considerable potential as a therapeutic approach.

Mechanism and medical implications of mammalian autophagy

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

http://www.jbc.org/content/early/2004/05/27/jbc.M313265200.full.pdf

Focal Adhesion Kinase Is Upstream of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt in Regulating Fibroblast Survival in Response to Contraction of Type I Collagen Matrices via a β1 Integrin Viability Signaling Pathway

ULK1 (unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1), the key mediator of MTORC1 signaling to autophagy, regulates early stages of autophagosome formation in response to starvation or MTORC1 inhibition. How ULK1 regulates the autophagy induction process remains elusive. Here, we identify that ATG13, a binding partner of ULK1, mediates interaction of ULK1 with the ATG14-containing PIK3C3/VPS34 complex, the key machinery for initiation of autophagosome formation. The interaction enables ULK1 to phosphorylate ATG14 in a manner dependent upon autophagy inducing conditions, such as nutrient starvation or MTORC1 inhibition. The ATG14 phosphorylation mimics nutrient deprivation through stimulating the kinase activity of the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) complex and facilitates phagophore and autophagosome formation. By monitoring the ATG14 phosphorylation, we determined that the ULK1 activity requires BECN1/Beclin 1 but not the phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)-conjugation machinery and the PIK3C3 kinase activity. Monitoring the phosphorylation also allowed us to identify that ATG9A is required to suppress the ULK1 activity under nutrient-enriched conditions. Furthermore, we determined that ATG14 phosphorylation depends on ULK1 and dietary conditions in vivo. These results define a key molecular event for the starvation-induced activation of the ATG14-containing PtdIns3K complex by ULK1, and demonstrate hierarchical relations between the ULK1 activation and other autophagy proteins involved in phagophore formation.

The ULK1 complex mediates MTORC1 signaling to the autophagy initiation machinery via binding and phosphorylating ATG14

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a relentlessly progressive lung disease in which fibroblasts accumulate in the alveolar wall within a type I collagen–rich matrix. Although lung fibroblasts derived from patients with IPF display durable pathological alterations in proliferative function, the molecular mechanisms differentiating IPF fibroblasts from their normal counterparts remain unknown. Polymerized type I collagen normally inhibits fibroblast proliferation, providing a physiological mechanism to limit fibroproliferation after tissue injury. We demonstrate that β1 integrin interaction with polymerized collagen inhibits normal fibroblast proliferation by suppression of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)–Akt–S6K1 signal pathway due to maintenance of high phosphatase activity of the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN). In contrast, IPF fibroblasts eluded this restraint, displaying a pathological pattern of β1 integrin signaling in response to polymerized collagen that leads to aberrant activation of the PI3K–Akt–S6K1 signal pathway caused by inappropriately low PTEN activity. Mice deficient in PTEN showed a prolonged fibroproliferative response after tissue injury, and immunohistochemical analysis of IPF lung tissue demonstrates activation of Akt in cells within fibrotic foci. These results provide direct evidence for defective negative regulation of the proliferative pathway in IPF fibroblasts and support the theory that the pathogenesis of IPF involves an intrinsic fibroblast defect.

https://rupress.org/jem/article-pdf/205/7/1659/1197939/jem_20080001.pdf

Pathological integrin signaling enhances proliferation of primary lung fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

The Forkhead box O (FoxO) family has recently been highlighted as an important transcriptional regulator of crucial proteins associated with the many diverse functions of cells. So far, FoxO1, FoxO3a, FoxO4 and FoxO6 proteins have been identified in humans. Although each FoxO family member has its own role, unlike the other FoxO families, FoxO3a has been extensively studied because of its rather unique and pivotal regulation of cell proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, stress management and longevity. FoxO3a alteration is closely linked to the progression of several types of cancers, fibrosis and other types of diseases. In this review, we will examine the function of FoxO3a in disease progression and also explore FoxO3a’s regulatory mechanisms. We will also discuss FoxO3a as a potential target for the treatment of several types of disease.

FoxO3a and disease progression.

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent pathway is one of the most integral pathways linked to cell metabolism, proliferation, differentiation, and survival. This pathway is dysregulated in a variety of diseases, including neoplasia, immune-mediated diseases, and fibroproliferative diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis. The mTOR kinase is frequently referred to as the master regulator of this pathway. Alterations in mTOR signaling are closely associated with dysregulation of autophagy, inflammation, and cell growth and survival, leading to the development of lung fibrosis. Inhibitors of mTOR have been widely studied in cancer therapy, as they may sensitize cancer cells to radiation therapy. Studies also suggest that mTOR inhibitors are promising modulators of fibroproliferative diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis (RIPF). Therefore, mTOR represents an attractive and unique therapeutic target in pulmonary fibrosis. In this review, we discuss the pathological role of mTOR kinase in pulmonary fibrosis and examine how mTOR inhibitors may mitigate fibrotic progression.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/19/3/778/pdf

Richard Seonghun Nho

Papers

Focal Adhesion Kinase Is Upstream of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt in Regulating Fibroblast Survival in Response to Contraction of Type I Collagen Matrices via a β1 Integrin Viability Signaling Pathway

The ULK1 complex mediates MTORC1 signaling to the autophagy initiation machinery via binding and phosphorylating ATG14

Pathological integrin signaling enhances proliferation of primary lung fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

FoxO3a and disease progression.

The Role of the Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) in Pulmonary Fibrosis.