People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

In this exchange, Robert J. Sternberg and Victor Vroom exchange their views regarding leadership. An issue of particular salience in this exchange is the role of the person versus the situation in leadership. Sternberg brings to the table a more person-oriented view, Vroom, a more situation-oriented view. The exchange leads to a consensus that emphasizes the importance of person–situation interaction.

The person versus the situation in leadership.

Thinking styles, abilities, and academic achievement among Hong Kong university students

In this article, we review alternative conceptions of intelligence and their implications for education. First, we consider the basic question of just what intelligence is. Because no single universally accepted view exists, we compare and evaluate three major views of intelligence: the psychometric, the Piagetian, and the information-processing. The three views are complementary rather than mutually exclusive, each dealing with different but overlapping aspects of intelligence. Next, we consider the educational implications of each view for training content knowledge, which is currently emphasized in our schools, and for training intellectual skills, which is emphasized to a lesser degree. We compare the educational implications of each approach by discussing how each would address the problem of training students on one type of intellectual skill, solving verbal analogies. We conclude by summarizing the implications of current conceptions of intelligence for education and by making recommendations for r...

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1170302.pdf

Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence and Their Implications for Education

This research sought to trace developmental patterns in the solution of verbal analogies, especially with respect to the development of the ability to recognize higher-order analogical relations. Particular aims of the investigation were (a) to provide new developmental tests of a componential theory of analogical reasoning (Sternberg, 1977a, 1977b; Sternberg & Rifkin, 1979); (b) to identify strategy changes during the transition from midchildhood (grade 3) to adulthood (college); (c) to compare the development of reasoning across five different verbal relations; and (d) to validate a new method of isolating component cognitive processes, the "method of stemsplitting," which can be applied to global reasoning performance. Twenty subjects in each of grades three, six, nine, and in college were tested in their relative abilities to solve 180 verbal analogies based on five different verbal relations (synonymy, antonymy, category membership, linear ordering, ?unctional) and presented in three different formats (varying in the number of terms in the analogy stem versus the number in the analogy options). Both response time and error data were collected. It was found that (a) the componential theory was successful in accounting for response-time data at all grade levels and error data at all but the college level; (b) third-graders and sixth-graders used a strategy that differed in key respects from the strategy used by ninth-graders and college students; (c) antonymous and functional relations were easier to process at all levels than were synonymous, category membership, and linear ordering relations; aad (d) the new method of isolating component cognitive processes provided-new insights into age-related strategy changes in the solution of verbal analogies.

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Developmental Patterns in the Solution of Verbal Analogies. Technical Report No. 3. Cognitive Development Series.

What does it mean to love someone? In particular, does it mean the same thing across time and space, or does its meaning change with context? Is the emotional experience of love, regardless of how people define love, always the same, or does the experience of love vary with context? In this article, we argue for a social-constructionist view of love, according to which both the definition and the emotional experience of love are contextually bound. We review both the social history and the psychological backdrop of love, concluding that we can understand love only in terms of cultural conceptions of (a) the beloved, (b) the feelings that accompany love, (c) the thoughts that accompany love, and (d) the actions, or the relations one has with the beloved.

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

The person versus the situation in leadership.

Thinking styles, abilities, and academic achievement among Hong Kong university students

Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence and Their Implications for Education

Developmental Patterns in the Solution of Verbal Analogies. Technical Report No. 3. Cognitive Development Series.

The Social Construction of Love