People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

The target article provides an anthropocentric model of understanding intelligence in nonhuman animals. Such an idea dates back to Plato and, more recently, Lovejoy: On Earth, humans are at the top and other animals at successively lower levels. We then evaluate these other animals by our anthropocentric folk theories of their intelligence rather than by their own adaptive requirements.

It's time to move beyond the "Great Chain of Being".

In this chapter, I present a theory of giftedness that emphasizes that giftedness should be defined not just in terms of general-intellectual skills, as it has been in the past, but in terms of adaptive-intellectual skills—a person’s ability to make a positive, meaningful, and potentially enduring difference to the world. People who are adaptively intelligent not only are “smart” in a traditional sense, but they also have the skills to become active engaged citizens and ethical leaders. I discuss the theory, the research, and the implications of the work for gifted identification and instruction.

A New Model of Giftedness Emphasizing Active Concerned Citizenship and Ethical Leadership That Can Make a Positive, Meaningful, and Potentially Enduring Difference to the World

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The Difficulty of Escaping Preconceptions in Writing an Article About the Difficulty of Escaping Preconceptions

Somewhere in the United States a hate crime is committed every hour — someone is being assaulted on the basis of his or her race, religion, or sexual orientation. Innocent people are being murdered, raped, and intimidated, and their property is being destroyed for no other reason than their affiliation to a group that is disliked, despised, or even hated by the perpetrator (Crime in the United States, 2007). Turning one's eyes from the United States to other parts of the world, the situation does not look much better. Worldwide, there are dozens of armed conflicts and wars being fought. Terrorism and counterterrorism are increasing risks to the security of the global community. At the time this article is being written, genocide is being committed in parts of the Sudan. Genocides are nothing new. Past genocides have left many millions of people dead. The causes of the armed conflicts, genocides, terror attacks, and hate crimes are complex and cannot be reduced to one single factor. However, hate toward the target group is one (of the many) antecedents in most of these cases. To date, little attention has been given by psychologists to understanding how hate evolves and is maintained. Only knowledge of these processes will make it possible to devise programs to prevent the development of hate and to intervene effectively in ongoing conflicts.


Keywords:

character-conditioned hate;
commitment;
hate;
negation of intimacy;
passion;
rational hate

Affect: origins and Targets of Hate

Abstract Jung & Haier (J&H) have done an admirable job of solving the wrong problem. Their article does not show “where in the brain is intelligence,” because intelligence resides not in the brain but, rather, in the interaction of brain and environment. I describe four reasons why the article does not adequately localize intelligence in the brain.

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

It's time to move beyond the "Great Chain of Being".

A New Model of Giftedness Emphasizing Active Concerned Citizenship and Ethical Leadership That Can Make a Positive, Meaningful, and Potentially Enduring Difference to the World

The Difficulty of Escaping Preconceptions in Writing an Article About the Difficulty of Escaping Preconceptions

Affect: origins and Targets of Hate

Right answer to the wrong question: A reply to Jung and Haier