People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

IN SOLVING problems, there are usually more ways to fail than to succeed. The problem of teaching critical thinking is no exception. When we think of the problems that arise in teaching critical thinking, we usually think of the problems that confront us once we actually embark on our expedition. But in talking about the teaching of critical thinking to audi ences of teachers and administrators across the United States, I have come to the conclusion that many programs are doomed to failure before they even be gin. When these programs fail, it is not because of what is done in the class room, but because of what is done be fore the program ever reaches the class room. Some of our ideas about teaching and learning no matter how well they may apply in the normal course of class room events do not apply in the case of instruction in critical thinking. The following eight fallacies obstruct the teaching of critical thinking before we even begin and make it easy to fail. The effects of these fallacies on the teaching of critical thinking are both in sidious and pernicious. 1. The teacher is the teacher and the student is the learner. Normally, ROBERT J. STERNBERG is IBM Profes sor of Psychology and Education at Yale University, New Haven, Conn. The prepara tion of this article was supported by grants from the Office of Naval Research (Con tract No. N0001485K0589) and the Army Research Institute (Contract No. MDA 90385K0305).

Teaching Critical Thinking: Eight Easy Ways to Fail before You Begin.

https://works.swarthmore.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1219&context=fac-psychology

The Positive Perspective On Youth Development

Contents: Preface. R.J. Sternberg, Applying the Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence in the Classroom. M. Krechevsky, S. Seidel, Minds at Work: Applying Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. R.C. Schank, D.M. Joseph, Intelligent Schooling. H.L. Goodrich Andrade, D.N. Perkins, Learnable Intelligence and Intelligent Learning. J. Parziale, K.W. Fischer, The Practical Use of Skill Theory in Classrooms. A.R. Jensen, The g Factor and the Design of Education. J. Baron, Intelligent Thinking and the Reflective Essay. A. Demetriou, N. Valanides, A Three-Level Theory of the Developing Mind: Basic Principles and Implications for Instruction and Assessment. E.L. Grigorenko, Mastering Tools of the Mind in School (Trying Out Vygotsky's Ideas in Classrooms).

Intelligence, Instruction, and Assessment : Theory Into Practice

Words to the Wise about Wisdom

tests play a major part in screening programs for identifying the gifted. By and large, tests can play and probably do play a valuable role in assessment, identifying students of exceptional talent and screening out students of lesser gifts. The better intelligence tests, at least, have shown sufficient validity and reliability for screening purposes when they are used in conjunction with other criteria. My contention in this article, however, is that tests only work for some of the people some of the time-not for all of the people all of the time and that certain assumptions we make in our use of tests are, at best, correct only for a segment of the tested population, and at worst, correct for none of it. As a result, we fail to identify many gifted individuals for whom the assumptions underlying our use of

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

Teaching Critical Thinking: Eight Easy Ways to Fail before You Begin.

The Positive Perspective On Youth Development

Intelligence, Instruction, and Assessment : Theory Into Practice

Words to the Wise about Wisdom

Lies we Live By: Misapplication of Tests in Identifying the Gifted