People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

on the other (e.g., Renzulli, 1980). This theoretical distinction is reinforced by, and to some extent is responsible for, differences in the prototypical contents of tests purporting to measure intelligence or creativity. Intelligence tests typically require students to demonstrate large vocabularies, high reading comprehension, rapid and accurate spatial visualization, facility in solving mathematical problems, and the like; creativity tests typically require students to generate unusual uses for products, to think of unusual questions, to take givens in pictures and incorporate them into

Nonentrenchment in the Assessment of Intellectual Giftedness

The collaborative efforts of the Connecticut State Department of Education, a testing corporation, and cognitive psychologists have produced a 4th grade mastery test that assesses thinking skills. They plan to follow up with curriculum and training materials. Whether our focus is on classi cal education, the new math, or basics, the ultimate goal of education has been to teach children to think critically and independently Hence, there is nothing faddish about educators' current interest in thinking skills, nor about the necessity of find ing integrated ways to teach and test them Educators realize, of course, that it is the student's ability to understand and use information, not merely pos sess it, that makes the difference in performance Unless test items mea sure that ability, they will miss the truly critical aspect of knowledge ac quisition the ability to retrieve infor mation and apply it to solve problems What is new, however, is our en hanced understanding of thinking skills as a result of the research of cognitive psychologists This under standing can bring substantial changes in our testing and training procedures The time is ripe for two reasons First, we now have several fairly elaborate theories of thinking process es (Sternberg, 1985; Ennis, in press, Feuerstein, 1980; and Lipman, Sharp, and Oscanyan, 1977), which, although differing in many details, all attempt to model in related ways the mental pro cesses that children use in solving problems. These theories have been successfully applied in both testing and training procedures What is need ed now are ways to implement them in statewide programs of assessment and training. Second, educators are now more willing to use theories of thinking in developing tests and curriculums. Educators have justifiably been skepti cal of previous offerings of psycholo gists; many innovations, including IQ tests, have proven at best to be mixed blessings. But with the growing aware ness that our educational system is not altogether succeeding and the hard data of decreasing test scores, educa tors are realizing that intervention is needed to revitalize our system of instruction When properly tested and used, theories of thinking offer a start toward accomplishing this goal We describe here a statewide at tempt to use current theories of think ing in the development of a 4th grade mastery test for assessing thinking skills. The testing program is still in the formative stages, so it is too early to present a proper evaluation or even a complete description of what (he program will ultimately look like It is possible, however, to show how edu cators from a state department of edu cation have worked together with cog nitive psychologists to devise a testing program in which both parties, repre senting very different points of view, can take pride

A Statewide Approach to Measuring Critical Thinking Skills.

Just back from several weeks of high-intensity simulated combat in the 
California desert, Bill, a young lieutenant in the field artillery, described a 
particularly challenging leadership problem that he had faced the previous 
week while fighting the OPFOR-the closest thing to a real enemy that an 
officer faces during peacetime.1 That problem was dealing with a boss who 
was reluctant to listen to his subordinate leaders.

Experience, Knowledge, and Military Leadership

STERNBERG, ROBERT J., and DOWNING, CATHRYN J. The Development of Higher-Order Reasoning in Adolescence. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1982, 53, 209-221. It has been found in past research that strategy development in analogical reasoning essentially ceases when children enter the period of formal operations. We investigated the hypothesis that further strategy development might occur within (or beyond) the period of formal operations, but that this development might be discernible only with analogical relations of at least the third order (i.e., in analogies between analogies). We thus extended a theory of information representation and processing in reasoning with standard second-order analogies to handle analogies of any order and sought to test the extended theory developmentally. 20 students each in grades 8 and 11 and in college were tested in their ability to evaluate the goodness of a set of 72 third-order analogies. Our proposed model provided a good fit to the evaluation data at all 3 grade levels. Moreover, the predicted strategy changes were observed to occur across the adolescent age range. Adolescent strategy development in the solution of third-order analogies resembled in pattern the preadolescent development previously found in the solution of second-order analogies.

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

Nonentrenchment in the Assessment of Intellectual Giftedness

A Statewide Approach to Measuring Critical Thinking Skills.

Experience, Knowledge, and Military Leadership

The Development of Higher-Order Reasoning in Adolescence.

Selection and Implementation of Strategies in Reasoning by Analogy.